BMIM LIBRARY1

INDIAN ETHOS AND VALUES

2010-12-30T22:16:00.000-08:00

INDIAN ETHOS AND VALUES

Syllabus

Module-1

Indian model of Management; Work ethos ; Indian heritage in Production and Consumption

Module -11

Indian insight to TQM; Teaching ethics; transcultural human values in management education
Module -111

Relevance of values in management; Need for values in Global change – Indian perspective ; Values for Managers
Module -1V

Holistic approach for managers in Decision making- Secular Vs Spiritual values in management- Science and human values – Ethical issues relates to globalization

Module -V

Indian Constitution- History, Fundamental rights, Unity in diversity.

UNIT 1

MANAGEMENT IN THE INDIAN CONTEXT

1.1 INTRODUCTION

In the Western world, civilization has come to a half. Why? They have won the whole world but lost their soul. It is because they have chosen to worship a false god, Mammon. The mad pursuit of wealth has made the Western society restless and soulless. The Time magazine writes that in Oxbridge student rooms and London suburbs, a depressing loss of idealism has invaded the society. After the death of communism, and the disappointments of the capitalists, a sense of philosophical bankruptcy has spread across the democratic world. Nahusha tells Yudhisthira in Bhagvad Gita

The man who gives in to lust,Anger, malice andGreed falls from the human levelto the animal

This is the brutalization of the human being which is causing such discontentment in the first world today and which the third world is so tragically aping.

According to Prof Guttosm Floistad of the University of Oslo in Norway, out of a population of four million in the country, as many as 700 commit suicide annually, 121 billion kroners worth of medicines mostly sedatives, are doled out, to tackle psychological disturbances arising out of interpersonal conflicts in the workplace, absenteeism, caused by poor interpersonal relations, is costing the State about 30 billion kroner. Road accidents are costing the State about 30 billion kroner annually, again caused by poor concentration on account of lack of internal stability stemming from workplace conflicts. The phenomenon of 70 per cent single parent families in oslo alone is destroying socio-cultural ties in the country, and people are locked up in self-defeating spiral of a frenzied pursuit of entertainment and frenetic materialism.

Ancient India was well aware of the psychological verity that sex, money and power are an interlinked trio, so that the pursuit of one inevitably immerses a person in the other two, en route to destruction.

The answer lies in building a sound value system as preached by Indian ethics. Western management scholars are turning to our Vedas, Upanishads and the Bhagvad Gita for answers to the angst pervading their civilization which their management practices have failed to resolve. We should seek to import those very theories and practices which they have discarded as failures. Scientific materialism, the gospel of the first world, as giving way to talk of the 'new paradigm business' which does not seek to exploit and gain advantage, but explore ways to find the purpose and meaning in work and life. The West has come to realize that the worship of reason with its basic characteristic of fragmentation has led to that very feature being reflected in the policy and to modem man being unable to see reality in its entirety. That money cannot be equated with happiness is a basic realization around which the new approach will have to be built. The basic problem of human resources is centered around values. While the ancient cultures which revolved round 'hedonomics', like Greece and Rome, are long gone, Indian culture is still alive with a heritage which is at once prescriptive yet impractical. The success of Japan is based on values similar to those of the to Indians.

There is disillusionment and frustration with the Western model of management which leads to confusion and chaos because it lacks consciousness and spirituality. Spiritual development is an essential part of total human development and Indian insights provide a unique and rich storehouse for such development.

1.2 INDIAN MODEL OF MANAGEMENT

The two most important tenets of the Indian model of management are human values and holism.

Human values refer to spiritual, ethical and moral values. Ethical and moral values point to what is considered right or wrong as per the tenets of society; spiritual values relate to matters of the spirit or religious beliefs. These values act as the base for thoughts, actions, skills and behaviour and shape good character. These values create a good man, a good manager and a good organization. They set good examples in society. Values satisfy the hunger of the soul and remove pollution from the minds of people.

The Indian model of management is based on holism, which means oneness or unity. Holism is wider than the systems approach to the Western model of management. A human being has soul, body, mind and intellect. There must be a harmonious development of these components of our personality because all parts are interconnected, interrelated and interdependent. Holism is unity-the absence of duality, hence the absence of conflict and disharmony. Thus, the Indian model of management is a value-driven holistic approach which is much better than the Western model of management.

The Western model of management is based on rationality while the Indian model is based on morality. One is a scientific model while the other is a spiritualistic one. If we make a comparative study of these two diametrically opposite models, we can easily see why the Indian model is better.

In the management milieu, what do we find in the Western model? According to Frank Kristol, a leading American intellectual, owing to the consequences of the unbridled pursuit of 'having more', independent of ethical and moral considerations, economic progress has been accompanied by an unforeseen tidal wave of social disintegration and moral disorientation. Whoever expected that the successful creation of a welfare state in an affluent economy would be accompanied by an incredible increase in criminality, so that the streets would be blanketed with fear? A sharp increase in teenage pregnancies, in drug addiction, in the creation of a dependent, self-destructive under class, fatal venereal disease like AIDS, two million abortions a year are all the resultant effects of a materialistic society.

In addition, 50 per cent of American children have a single parent, a step¬parent or no parent, which is seen as a major cause of the value-crisis. Instead of

Marshall McLuhan's global village, we seem to be living in a global megalopolis. Herbert Marshall McLuhan, a Canadian educator, philosopher and scholar had advocated the expression-' global village', where people are in touch with their in her selves instead of the materialistic world outside.

The root cause lies in ourselves, for it is we who have chosen to worship the materialistic world using power as the grease for the wheels of his juggernaut.

The prime need of the human race is to escape from worldly misery and attain eternal happiness. Indian philosophy shows how the goals are to be achieved. From the epic Mahabharata we learn that dharma resides in non-violence, impartiality, peace, gentleness, humility. These are the five cardinal virtues, the practice of which leads of the attainment of dharma: calmness of mind, self-control, moderation, forgiveness, yoga. Indian philosophy advocates that happiness and money cannot be equated. The basic problem of management should centre around values. This is the Indian model of management.

Western thought is largely materialistic. Explosive growth in scientific knowledge about the physical world has had an all-pervasive influence. Major social scientists viewed spirituality and religion as anachronistic. Marx called it the opium of the masses and Freud considered it an illusion.

Influenced by these ideas, mainstream psychology in the West has not provided a valid place for the spiritual dimension of man. Humanistic psychology went only so far as to define the concept of self-actualizing man, a concept that is not easy to separate from that of a spontaneous self-centred man. Existential psychology, more often than not, pushes man into a black hole of existential anxiety.

Western models of man and management are bound to prove inadequate in addressing the problems of modem society. Important concepts are available in Vedantic thought to enrich Western thought and to provide a holistic set of ideas for management and organizations. For those managers whose aim is to achieve the highest level of managerial and organizational effectiveness, Vedantic wisdom directs them along a road where the pursuit of excellence goes hand-in-hand with their own spiritual development. In the Western society, human values have been sacrificed at the altar of science and technology. Science engages splitting, breaking up, segmenting. When this consciousness underlying the scientific temper is extended by technology into the domain of our material existence, human consciousness suffers from increasing fragmentism.

Fragmentation of the human consciousness accelerated by science and technology is a prime cause of the widespread fall in the level of human values reflected in our lives. While it has raised agricultural productivity or increased human longevity, in a moral sense, it has destroyed human impulses for higher values such as simple living and high thinking. A thoroughly showy lifestyle offers no scope for piecing together our broken consciousness into its original state of wholeness.

While science and technology have so for accelerated splits within man and between man and mar., they have also grievously aggravated the man-nature split. In India, people worship nature. If nature is 'used' it is only for 'need', not' greed'. We have not thought of the negative consequences of high standards of living, consumerism and economic growth that are madly pursued in the West. In the rush for economic planning and growth, the true model of man has been completely lost sight of .At present, both developed and developing countries have come to realize that market mechanisms and market forces are the most important factors in their economic development. In India, we have launched a new liberal economic policy which uses liberalization, privatization and delicensing as the means of achieving quick economic and social development. This policy also welcomes foreign direct investment and multinational corporations to invest in India. .

It is against this background that organizations in all developed and developing countries are undergoing a thorough change. The change in the organizations, in many cases, is turbulent and is resulting in the total transformation of the organizations, leading to a break with the past.

The change would be so swift and so sweeping that it may overpower some of the organizations which are simply not prepared for it. Such a development could drastically affect the very survival of such organizations. In the future, competition among organizations is likely to be so intense and cut-throat that the weaker ones may just vanish from the market. The struggle may take place between financially-sound MNCs on the one hand and corporations in the developing countries on the other.

The only way that organizations all over the world can survive is by withstanding effectively the powerful onslaught of the forthcoming change. This would be possible if the organizations could transform themselves completely. Such a stupendous change would serve as an instrument for further development and growth.

What will be the nature and type of change that will confront the organizations in the 21st century? The change would occur as a result of advanced technology, computer applications, artificial intelligence, information explosion, biotechnology processes or genetic engineering.

Prospective scenario of the future organizations

Organizations in the 21st century and beyond would not suffer from 'obesity' and are bound to be flatter, slimmer and leaner than their present-day counterparts. Unduly long vertical power structures and designation-obsessed power hierarchy are going to be altered drastically and may disappear altogether. Organizational obesity can be reduced by decruitment of employees who have been inducted for the mere creation of jobs and not for their necessity in the organization. So-called' golden handshakes,' could turn into' empty handshakes' , thereby depriving organizations of the few really talented seniors while most of the mediocre and non-performing employees will stick on.

In future organizations, performance appraisal shall not merely be an exercise specifying the merit rating of the individual but will be extended to explore their potentialities for future development. Organizations in future are bound to be change¬s -sensitive but not change-resistant. At present, in most organizations, training is highly 'trainer centred'. Future organizations are likely to be 'learning organizations', i.e., they shall be 'trainee centred'. Human beings learn not only through formal training programmes but also through experimental learning on the job.

In the future, discipline in organizations will not involve punctuality or behaving properly but will encompass a firm commitment of an employee to the job and the profession. The so-called 'span of control' shall have to transform itself into a process of monitoring and guidance on the part of senior executive vis-a.-vis juniors. Interpersonal relations will not be marked with designations, but will be warm, reciprocal, informal, functional and more humane in nature. The communication channel in the 21st century organizations will not be a one-way traffic, i.e., :from top downwards but will become a two-way process.

The work culture in a future organization would involve an industrial relations based outlook and not an industrial disputes-based one. The relationship between the management and the unions shall not be based on the 'who wins' approach, but on a 'win-win' approach. Consequently, the so-called 'exclusive rights' of the management would have to be reinterpreted and acted upon for the overall benefit of the organization.

The overall management will be more participative in day-to-day activities than at present. In fact, reduction in the organizational obesity and delaying will help achieve this objective effectively. Workers' participation in management is sure to transform itself into a co-deteimination process.

In future, the process of decision-making at the top level is likely to become increasingly painful. Given the rapid and unpredictable changes in technology, markets,government policies, the senior executives shall face the fundamental question on whether to take a decision or not. In the course of the agonizing process, senior executives will experience tremendous stress. Such stress shall become second nature for executives.

Thus, in essence, the scenario of the future organizations would be:

. reduced obesity

. flattened hierarchy

. delayered power structures

. informal relations with two-way communication,

. discipline beyond mere timekeeping

. cut-throat competition among the corporations

. stress on zero-defect products

. quality conscious production

. emphasis on learning rather than training

. increasing necessity for creativity

. frequently and abruptly changing structures and priorities

. If such is the scenario of the future organization there is definitely something in the Indian ethos which would help them to tackle such changes and channelise them for their development.

The Indian ethos will prove to be of immense help as well as practical use to executives in job management in the post-modem organizations.

Relevance of the Indian ethos to future organizations

The Indian ethos is the result of the Hindu way of life. For a Hindu, the Indian life has four fundamental goals-dharma, artha, kama and moksha. To fulfill these goals, human life is divided into four stages-brahmacharya, grihastya, vanasprastha and sanyas. Each stage spans a specific period of an individual's life during which a particular goal dominates. For example, during grihastya the fulfillment of artha and kama goals predominate, whereas during sanyas, the quest for moksha dominates.

To achieve the above-mentioned goals of life, three fundamental ways have been suggested-karma (action), bhakti (devotion) andjnana (knowledge). The adoption by an individual of a particular marga depends on the degree and the level of his psychological and spiritual evolution, his individual volition (pravritti), his samaskara ( culture), vasana (passion) and on his gunas, namely salva (the illumining force), rajas (the kinetic force) or tamas (dark, obstructive force).

On the basis of the composition and predominance of the gun as for each individua~ his personality takes a shape. Based on his pravirtti, each individual adopts a particular marga that is suitable to his nature, which the Bhagavad Gita terms swadharma. Sometimes, incompatibility among the individuals and gunas could lead to adverse results. For example, if a person dominated by tamasic gunas adopts the jnana marga (path of knowledge) he will end up as a failure and become frustrated.

Therefore, the Gita insists that each individual select his career/job according to his gunas and parinathi (maturity) appears not only sound but also logical.

These insights are immensely valuable for the modem organization and its management.

According to the Upanishads, the realities of life and nature are constantly changing and nothing is absolutely permanent on this earth. Social systems change, economic systems change, organizations change and individuals change and energy changes its forms. The only fundamental reality in creation is change--constant change. Moreover, concepts such as truth and morality are in a constant flux. Lord Krishna asserted in the Bhagvad Gita that the man who does not realize the truth of flux and change is the most ignorant and foolish. He cannot face change bravely and naturally, so as to face it bravely and naturally. One should keep in mind that nothing is absolutely stable and permanent. Every modem-day executive has to realize this fundamental truth and prepare himself as well as his colleagues and the entire organization for the impending changes.

To know the true nature of reality in corporate organizations, each executive must have a clear insight into his own self, his own personality, his own individuality, and his own qualities. He must be aware of his pravirtti, gunas, attachments and aversions, prejudices and preferences, instincts and drives. He should act as a yogi an eternal ascetic.

In a tumultuously changing organization, only that individual can emerge as a successful executive who is deeply aware of his true self and his characteristics. When he attains this state, he can become a satvic (self-illumined and detached) and a sanyasi (one with the highest degree of control on oneself and one's emotions). Consequently, he can take decisions in a calm and dispassionate manner despite the turbulent change affecting the organization. For making critical decisions, especially during crisis, an executive needs a mind which possesses steadfastness and not fickleness. He also requires samadrishti, i.e., equanimity to view alike success and failure, praise and criticism, joy and sorrow and attachment and aversion. For attaining such a state of mind, the executive, like a yogi, has to transcend the duality of life and death. Such freedom from immediate conditioning (or stress situations) can be attained by an executive only if he performs his own actions in a detached manner and does not attach undue importance to the results and rewards. In other words, that individual is a true yogi who realizes that only action is in his control and not the rewards. The executive should not be unduly perturbed by or obsessed with the outcome of his actions, whether they lead to success or failure. One can achieve this condition if one engages in genuine nishkam karma. Could there be a better panacea than the approach through nishkam karma for an executive to manage effectively the ever-changing, turmoil-oriented and crisis-ridden organizations of the future?

When an executive succeeds in transforming himself through self-awareness into a nishkam karma yog~ his performance improves manifold, his tensions disappear, the stress of day-to-day life does not affect him adversely and his mental health and capacities to cope with change increase tremendously.

Therefore, the logical conclusion would be that a modem-day executive must be guided by a fundamentally different work ethic, i.e., action is a must, but with no attachment to and obsession with its result and reward as the Gita has declared.

Self-perception and Self-awareness

To perform nishkam karma an executive should introspect which would lead to true self-perception. Such self-perception helps him to carry out a deeper exploration into his motivations and their sources and the resultant actions. In this connection, the Upanishads observe that real perception is above your perception. ,An executive who has developed a deep sense of self-perception and a deep insight into the realities of organizational functioning, will acquire tremendous strength as well as resilience which will greatly boost his performance.

The perceptive executive does not suffer from 'tunnel vision' or from professional arrogance driven by specialized knowledge, skill and talent. Moreover, true perception into changing realities ensures that the executive remains constantly creative and innovative and accepts that all organizations are in a state of constant movement and subject to continuous change. He does not get upset by any change, however sweeping it may be. The individual has his own potential so as to be able to withstand all kinds of pressures. Within the individual, there is no self-conflict.

The Indian ethos was and is characterized by a pluralistic; creative and altruistic view of life which can be extrapolated to organizations. The Indian ethos strongly believes in the concept of summum bonum. Indian thinkers had asserted that everything is bound to change and man has to adapt to such changes and transform themselves into futurists, if they have to survive and succeed in managing their lives and in fact, protecting civilization at large. The Indian ethos empowers individuals and organizations to prepare themselves for the forthcoming tremendous changes so as to utilize them for the optimum benefit of all mankind.

The East and the West-plain living and high thinking: A study in contrast

To highlight the contrast between the Eastern and Western philosophies, Rudyard Kipling had said, 'the East is East and the West is West, the twain shall never meet' .

Western civilization is materialistic or hedonistic and the eastern or Indian civilisation is spiritualistic and holistic. Swami Vivekananda had said that the voice of Asia has been the voice of religion. The voice of Europe is the voice of politics. The essence of the Indian way of living is simple living and high thinking. It is the disregard of this principle which is the root cause of all the evils manifested in our environment. The Eastern people are dreamers. They want to go beyond the present. The present is nothing to them. But to Western materialist people, the present is everything. Western philosophy has, at all times, consistently adopted 'success' as the goal of human life, while the Eastern philosophy insists on perfection as the goal of human life. Not only aims differ, lifestyles also differ. Perfection is spiritual and value-centred while success is materialistic and production-centred.

The Western materialistic philosophy is self-defeating. If one consumes everything in the present, it will conflict with sustainable development. If we use all our resources now, nothing will be left for the future generations.

Most of the saints of the East lead a plain life because high living means materialistic living. Gautam Buddha left the throne to embrace the life of a mendicant and to search for the real meaning of life.

Indian thinking is basically spiritualistic because Indian saints know that the body and soul are two different entities. The soul is immortal while the body is subject to death and decay. Indians concentrate on the development of the soul or moral development and do not attach any importance to physical living. They have realized that the more they are materialistic, the more they are further from God or Life Divine. They prefer to live a plain life so that they can give more energy and thought to the development of spiritualism.

Indians are eager to develop the human faculties so that they can realize the real meaning of life and the purpose of their existence on earth. They do not care for the transient and temporary living on earth-they search for the eternal life of truth, beauty and goodness. Hence, neither materialism nor high living is consistent with the Indian way of living. High thinking and plain living has become the motto of Indian way of living.

Western materialistic culture aims at attaining a high standard of living. To achieve a high standard of living we need more and variety of goods and services. Western society is running at a high speed to reach what Prof. W. W. Rostow has called the 'High Mass Consumption Society'. There is competition, tension and restlessness. But Indian life is based on cooperation, contentment and mental peace.

Modem science and technology are the fruits of the tree of knowledge of good and evil. They are not evil in themselves but they become evil when they are separated from spiritualism. Science is the worst form of knowledge-the knowledge of the material world through reason. Dr Albert Einstein has aptly pointed out that we should not worship intellect. Intellect may be powerful but has no personality. It can only serve, not lead. It may have a sharp eye for methods and tools but is blind to ends and values. Indian philosophy is, as Swami Vivekananda said, man-making philosophy. Here, mind is more important than material, ethics is more important than economics.

Management presupposes the existence of man. No man, no management, no production. The president of a multinational corporation once remarked, 'I do not manufacture automobiles. 1 build only men because my men build these things. ‘This is exactly the Indian approach-the objective is not to produce more goods but more good men. The race for production and distribution has brought forth a lust for profit all round. Ends rule supreme, means are discounted. Hence, management has been reduced to a handmaid of profiteering. This phenomenon is found in abundance in the West, especially in the US, which has surpassed the world both in materialism and management.

In Western management, the worker is all, man stands nowhere. He is treated like a hired commodity which is paid for and rewarded as long as it is serviceable. The moment he ceases to be such, he stands discredited and is promptly replaced. The workforce resort to underhand pressures to dupe the management. Conflicts are common, violence is rampant, absenteeism is the rule and strikes and breakdowns are daily occurrences. Naturally production is lost, unemployment is rampant and society suffers. The materialistic management has done more harm than good. The capitalist has grown richer, man has been reduced to a wage-earner and society has been placed at the mercy of a materialist management.

Indian philosophy and its way of living lays emphasis on: (i) Moral development, (ii) Development of character, and (iii) Refinement of human values. Rationalism of the West leads to material success while spiritualism of the East leads to perfection on earth.

As Sri Aurobindo said, 'Moral development makes an individual a complete human living-a total man and not an economic man. '

Indian perspective on the stress-related problems in corporate word

The period from 1900 to the present stands apart from every other period in human history as one of incredible change. Philosophers and scientists have given various names to this period. Peter Drucker has called it the Age of Discontinuity, John Galbraith has called it the Age of Uncertainty, Alvin Toffler called it the Age of Future Shock and Karl Albrecht, the Age of Anxiety.

A strange new disease has found its way into the lives of people of the industrialized nations of the world. The symptoms range from minor discomfort to death, from headache to heart attack, from indigestion to stroke, from fatigue to high blood pressure. This is the stressful life of man-both family and corporate life is full of stress. Stress is caused by a stimulus which may be either physical or psychological. Positive stress is called eustress, such as getting a promotion or getting married. Negative stress is called distress, such as a bad news, unreasonable demand, or demotion.

Symptoms: Stress is a condition of strain of one's emotions, thought processes and physical condition. When it is excessive, it can threaten one's ability to cope with the environment. Stress indicates the pressures people feel in corporate life. As a result of these pressures, employees develop various symptoms of stress that harms their job performance. People who are stressed may become nervous, easily provoked to anger and unable to relax. They may be uncooperative or take alcohol excessively. Stress also leads to physical disorders because the internal body system changes to cope with stress. Some physical disorders are stomach ulcer, heart disease, and kidney troubles. Stress may affect any employee, whether he is an elderly manager or a young worker. .

Causes: Conditions which cause stress are called stressors. According to one report, major sources of stress relate to the job and the family. The former include being fired. The latter include divorce, death of a child or wife. Another cause of stress is frustration. It is the result of a motivation being blocked to prevent one from reaching a goal.

Stress can be either helpful or harmful to job performance. A stress performance model shows the relationship between stress and job performance. When there is no stress, job challenges are absent and performance tends to be low. As stress increases, performance increases as stress helps a person to mobilise resources to meet job requirements. Ultimately stress reaches a plateau that corresponds with a person's top performance capability. At this point additional stress tends to produce no improvement of performance. Finally, if stress becomes too heavy, performance will decline and if it increases to a breaking point, performance comes down to zero.

Environmental factors: Our lives are changing rapidly. The five significant areas of change are as follows:

. From rural living to urban living

. From stationary to mobile

. From self-sufficiency to over consumption

. From isolated to inter-connected

. From physically active to sedentary

With the rapid development of technology, transportation and emergence of big corporations as well as the concentration of large manufacturing operations in the cities, a steady migration is bringing more and more people to the cities.

The city dweller is usually confined to a small plot of territory with the essentials carefully condensed into his living quarters. In some ways, the typical city apartment is reminiscent of the ancient cave. Living in the presence of large numbers of people induces a relatively high level of alertness in the city dweller. Crime and violence are frequently on the mind of the city dweller. Old cities generally have fairly large slum areas which breed crime and anti-social behaviour as well as continued poverty. The entire setting of the city demands a much higher level of alertness than the quiet, rural setting in which challenging events come less often and with much less severity. The urban environment seems to induce a much higher normal level of stress in the city dweller than that experienced by the rural person. Although most city dwellers seem to have learned to live in the city environment, nevertheless, it has been taking a gradual toll on their health and well-being.

Second, modem urban people have become mobicentric. The auto and jet plane have extended the reach of all people and have cut them loose from their places of birth; large numbers of people travel about the country and on vacations. They change jobs much more frequently than ever before. The typical professional person in India changes jobs twice or thrice in life. A typical Indian family changes home two or three times in life.

The typical pattern of early the 20th century was to be born in a community, grow up there and grow old there. The typical late 20th century style is to be born in one place, to grow up in a different place, be educated some place else, to move from place to place as part of one's career and to get married, divorced and remarried.

While, the typical citizen of the early 20th century worked within a 10 to 15 mile radius of his home. Indians of the 1990s and of the present century work within a 50 to 100 mile radius and commute a long distance each day. Commuting to : and from one's workplace has become a part of a worker's lifestyle nowadays.

The primary form of anxiety arising from the new mobicentric lifestyle is the loss of a sense of performance. Too high a rate of change for a person produces the physical stress in his body and leads to a decline in his emotional well-being, degradation of physical health and a general decline in the quality of life. Too much change destroys the feeling of stability and causes chronic anxiety.

Third, people have become consumers. In the early 20th century majority of families grew at least some of their food, raised animals and made some of their own necessities. But by the 1980s the usual urban and semi-urban family had become almost wholly dependent on a small number of farms and on factories for the goods they consumed.

Fourth, interconnectedness has done more to change the lives, values, aspirations and habits of modem people than any other factor. And it has perhaps added the most to the increasing stress load than any other factor.

Whereas the citizen of the early 20th century got most of the news from local gossip channels and the town newspapers and his main interest was to know what was happening in his own community, the citizen of the present century is literally deluged with information about the community, the state, the country and the world. An event taking place in one part of the country can be known within minutes in all other parts of the country.

The fifth important change factor, the shift from a physically active lifestyle to a sedentary one, more or less sums up the above stated factors. Not many highly educated people work hard for a living any more. Fifty per cent of the workforce is now engaged in knowledge work-production processing and handling of information. The fraction of the workforce engaged in heavy physical labour is steadily declining, as automation, robot and new machineries are being put to use. Instead of spending twelve hours a day on his job a modem industrial worker now spends about eight hours a day at work.

The list of diseases that medical researchers now recognize as being caused by stress are many. The ulcer is regarded as a mark of high pressure living. Medical research has now linked heart attack with stress. In the US, over ten million people each year have heart attacks. Over half of them die immediately or within a few hours. For most people, the period of convalescence following the heart attack changes them into permanent patients. Their tempo of life slows down and they tend to engage in fewer activities and often become less assertive and less enthusiastic.

Cancer may have a stress-derived component. In the US, over 300,000 people die from cancer each year. In India, the number of cancer patients is placed at 1.5 to 2.0 million every year. Another disease clearly linked to stress is hypertension or high blood pressure. Although other factors such as smoking and drinking and being overweight surely playa part, many researchers now believe that stress is the primary cause of hypertension. This disorder kills 60,000 people a year in the US. More city dwellers seem to have it than rural people. Men suffer from it more than women. Elevated blood pressure seems to be connected with elevated levels of anger, frustration and other emotions that the individual feels incapable of expressing.

Three main categories of sudden stress are:

(i) A traumatic disruption of a relationship with a loved one

(ii) A situation of physical danger, struggle or attack

(iii) Extreme sense of failure, defeat, disappointment, humiliation and loss of self-esteem

The most popular forms of escape from stress are:

. drinking liquor

. overeating

. smoking

. using heavy drugs

. using sleeping pills

For those who are lacking in maturity and social adjustment, chronic stress can lead to antisocial behaviour or even violent crime.

Still other people who have been stressed choose insanity as a means of escape. They go crazy in trying to drop out of the stressful micro-world in which they have been living. At the extremes of maladjustment and misery, suicide provides the ultimate means of stress reduction. Suicide rates go up in times of economic crisis or extreme social turmoil. In the US about 25,000 people commit suicide every year.

How to reduce stress: There are several ways to reduce stress. Counselling is one such way. Counselling is discussion of a problem with a view to helping the employee cope with it better. Counselling seeks to improve the employee's mental health by the release of emotional tension which is also known as emotional catharsis. People will get an emotional release from their frustrations and other problems whenever they have an opportunity to tell someone about them.

Another way to reduce stress is meditation. Meditation involves quiet, concentrated inner thought in order to rest the body physically and emotionally. It helps remove a person from a stressful world temporarily.

Indian perspective: The Indian ways of managing stress are

. Self-introspection

. Brain stilling

. Meditation

We have to embark upon self-study, self-analysis and self criticism to locate areas of friction, tension and disharmony. We should prepare a balance sheet of our strengths and weaknesses. Our mind may identify weak spots. By regular instrospection we can find a solution to our problems. Introspection involves self-examination of one's own thoughts, feelings and sensations. Constant practice or sadhana helps us to discard unwanted traits and cultivate good values to purify our mind and heart.
In the West, managers resort to brainstorming to solve difficult problems. The Indian insight advocates a better alternative in the form of brain stilling. For taking a rational decision, a silent mind is a much more effective way to get a sound and lasting solution to all management problems and relieve tension which cause stress. Brain stilling or meditative silence is the most reliable method to discover solutions to difficulties and problems which cannot be tackled by reason.

Lastly, a dynamic meditation is one that transforms lower consciousness into higher consciousness. It opens the third eye of wisdom through insight. One may mediate to open oneself to the Divine Force, to receive its guidance to discover the points to be transformed. Meditation helps to solve your complex managerial problems demanding higher consciousness.

Beneath our lower consciousness, we have our true inner being, the centre of consciousness. Through meditation, with a silent and calm mind, we are able to connect with our higher consciousness, and refer the problems of our life to it. When our mind is open and receptive to this higher consciousness, we receive information in the form of intuitions guiding us to form our right decisions and to solve difficulties which create stress or distress in mind. This is called the consciousness approach to management. The management and workers must have absolute faith in the Supreme Being's infInite powers.

1.3 WORK ETHICS: NATURE AND SCOPE

Nature of ethics

Ethics deals with ideals. Hence, ethics is said to be a normative science. What, then, is a normative science? A normative science seeks to determine norms, ideals, standards or values. It is generally recognized that there are three ideals of human life, vie, truth, beauty and goodness. They correspond to three aspects of 9ur experience¬ thinking, feeling and willing. Logic deals with the ideal of truth and tries to determine the general conditions involved in the pursuit of truth. Aesthetics is called the normative science of beauty. Ethics is concerned with the ideal of Good. These sciences are concerned with the standards of value, rather than with the simple apprehension and analysis of what exists or occurs.

Ethics is not a natural or positive science like physics and chemistry. A positive science studies facts as they are or occur. It collects data from experience and tries to explain them by reference to natural laws. The laws of positive sciences are descriptive laws, they state how things occur and are not concerned with laying down principles on how they ought to occur. Ethics is not primarily concerned with conduct as a fact or an event in space and time, something done here and now, following from circumstances in the past and succeeded by certain results in the future. It is concerned with judgment upon conduct, the judgment that such and such conduct is right or wrong. .(John Henry Muirhead- The Elements of Ethics). Ethics is concerned not with human conduct as it is but as it ought to be. It passes judgments’ of value upon human actions with reference to the moral ideal. While the judgments’ of a positive science are judgments’ off act, i.e., judgments regarding facts and events as they are or occur and state the laws governing them, the judgments of normative science, like ethics, are judgements of value stating whether a particular conduct is in conformity with the moral ideal or the ideal of goodness. Moral judgements are not descriptive but prescriptive i.e., they state what we ought to do, not what we actually do. They evaluate our conduct as right or wrong.

Postulates of ethics

Hence, ethics is a science which deals with the ideals involved in human conduct. It deals with the standards of rightness and wrongness, good and evil involved in conduct. It is a normative or regulative science of conduct. It should be noted that all types of behaviours or conduct of men do not come under the purview of ethics; for example, an office employee is going to a bank to deposit a large sum of money that belongs to his office, and on the way he is shot at by certain miscreants, is slightly wounded and the money is snatched from him by those miscreants. In this case, the office employee should not be held morally responsible for the loss of money, for his conduct is not the result of his free will. The money was snatched from him against his will by brute force. Any conduct which is not done by a person of his own free will is not judged to be the subject matter of ethics. Such a conduct is neither good nor bad. But if, in the course of police enquiry, it is found that the office employee was in league with the miscreants who shot at and slightly injured him, he should surely be held responsible for his deed and be punished for it. Hence, freedom of will of the agent or doer is a fundamental postulate or presupposition of morality. An action done by the free will of an agent is the expression of the nature of character of that person and is not something that occurs involuntarily or accidentally. Such events that do not follow from the free will of the does, do not form the subject matter of moral judgements. For this reason, reflex actions, instinctive actions, ideo-motor actions, accidents, etc., cannot be said to be morally right or wrong. A man fleeing from a dangerous animal is following an instinct of self-preservation. He cannot be blamed for the flight. Similarly, when we withdraw our hand on touching a very hot object, our action is an instance of reflex action that occurs automatically and involuntarily. An ideo-motor action is one in which action follows from the very idea of it. A spectator watching a footballer about to kick a ball into the net, may sometimes kick the man standing in front of him. He had no intention of kicking him. His act of kicking followed impulsively from the idea of kicking. It did not follow from any conscious decision on the part of the man. Hence, the conduct does not fall within the purview of moral judgement. The same is the case with accidents, e.g., breaking one's leg as a result of slipping on a banana skin. Only deeds done by the free will of an agent form the subject matter of moral judgement. Hence, freedom of will is the most fundamental presupposition of the postulates of ethics.

But there are other important considerations as well. Suppose, a boy of eight sets fire to a hut and causes considerable loss of property. Would he be punished for his deed? He would certainly be scolded by his elders and even given a few slaps, but he would not be legally prosecuted and jailed. The reason is that in an eight-year-old boy, the rational faculty is not fully developed to distinguish good from bad. The same holds true for mentally retarded persons. The second postulate of ethics is, therefore, reason. Only persons with a properly developed rational faculty, i.e., with the power of distinguishing good from bad are to be held responsible for their voluntary actions. Acts of other persons do not come under the scope of moral judgement.

The third postulate or presupposition behind moral judgement is personality ¬that is, the unity and continuity of the mental life of a person. We all believe that a man should enjoy the benefits of his good deeds or suffer the consequences of his bad deeds. But the consequences of actions come after the deeds are done. Sometimes, there is a considerable time gap between an action and its result. I plant a tree which may produce fruits after a few years. But my personality, in spite of many changes, does remain fundamentally the same, and it is I who enjoy the fruits of my action. But if, for some reason, my personality undergoes a profound change, if for example, it is replaced by an altogether different personality, my original personality may be said to be non-existent and I cannot enjoy the result, good or bad, of my act. If a man commits a crime and during the course of his trial, is found to be insane, he is not punished for his crime. Instead of being sent to jail, he is sent to a mental asylum and is deprived of his personal freedom and civic rights. Ethics holds that the doer of a deed must suffer its consequences. For this, the personality of the agent must remain the same. In case of serious mental illnesses like dual personality and alternating personality, the unity and continuity of the agent's mental life is seriously impaired and he can no longer be said to be the same person. Hence, he is not held morally responsible for his act.

Thus, to pass moral judgement on a conduct, ethics requires that the agent must:

1. Perform the deed out of his own free will and not be compelled to do it by some overwhelming force

2. Be in possession of a fully developed rational faculty which can help him distinguish right from wrong, good from bad

3. Not lose his normal personality, i.e., he must have a unified and continuous mental life

An action which fulfills the preceding criteria comes under the scope of moral judgement. All other acts are to be regarded as non-moral, i.e., not coming under the scope of moral judgement.

It should be noted, however, that apart from voluntary actions, habitual actions also come under the scope of moral judgement. A smoker tries hard to give up smoking, but he does not succeed. He is sincere in his efforts. So, how can he be held morally responsible for his habit? Is this not a medical and psychological problem? Certainly, giving up addiction to smoking, drinking, etc., sometimes requires prolonged medical and psychological treatment. But the man has not become an addict overnight or as consequence of a reflex action. It was by repeated exercise of his free will that he became addicted to such a habit. Habitual actions, being voluntary in origin, come under the scope of moral judgement.

In this connection, it is necessary for us to have clear ideas about the terms 'moral' 'immoral' and 'non-moral'. We generally believe that murder, theft, arson, etc., are immoral acts while charity and benevolence are moral acts. In fact, both these types of acts are moral because they come under the scope of moral judgement. Deeds like murder, etc., are bad moral conducts while love and charity are good moral conducts. Immoral acts do not mean acts beyond the scope of moral judgement. Instinctive actions, reflex actions, ideo-motor actions, etc., are termed non-moral because they are not performed voluntarily by the agent. Such acts are morally neither good nor bad. We cannot blame a man for immediately withdrawing his hand if it comes in contact with an electric current, nor for feeling hungry, thirsty or sleepy.

We thus understand that voluntary actions of persons in full possession of rational faculty and with a unified and continuous mental history are the subject matter of moral judgement. But when we praise or blame a man for his conduct, what aspect of his conduct do we judge? A voluntary action is not a simple event. It has three stages¬ the mental stage, the physical or bodily stage and the external stage of consequences.

Scope of ethics

Since ethics is the normative science of conduct, i.e., its function is to judge the moral worth of conduct with reference to a norm or ideal or standard, the scope of ethics is very wide. Ethics covers virtually all aspects of life for there is no conduct which is totally free from moral considerations. As a science of conduct, it is concerned with the ideal or standard to which our conduct should conform. Hence, ethics enquires into the nature of the springs of action or impetus, the forces that impel men to action, motives, intentions, nature of voluntary and non-voluntary actions, etc. Being a normative science, ethics is more concerned with the ideal to which our conduct should conform. It is the task of ethics to determine the nature of right, good, duty and virtue. Philosophical questions like that of the freedom of will also come within the scope of ethics. If it is found that in the ultimate analysis, men are determined totally in their behaviour by external physical forces, then human conduct will become a fact like any other natural fact and event, and the question of passing moral judgement on human conduct will not arise. Thus, ethics will cease to exist as a normative science.

Since we believe in the freedom of will and hold that men are not mere automata, their conduct is meaningful and aims at realizing some higher end or ideal, ethical considerations will enter into all aspects of our life. Hence, ethics is closely related to many other sciences. Politics is allied with ethics, for both of them aim at the good of the people. But there is also a great difference between the two. While politics aims at public utility and welfare, ethics aims at moral welfare or the realization of the highest good or ideal. Political laws are enforced by external physical forces, by threat of punishment. Ethical principles are self-imposed.

Ethics lays down the ideal of highest good and judges our conduct in the light of that ideal. Economics, which aims at ensuring economic welfare of the people, too is closely related to ethics. Economics is no longer considered as the science of wealth but of welfare, which is not a fact but an ideal. The concept of welfare is a broad one and economics tries to ensure only one type of welfare, viz., material welfare that may be ensured by economic goods and services.

1.4 BUSINESS ETHICS

Business may be defined as a human activity centered on producing or acquiring wealth via buying and selling goods. Business ethics and values are important for the successful development of a business organization. Ethics in business refers to a code of standard by which one can determine what is wrong and what is right for the business enterprise. Fairness, integrity, committing to agreements, broad-mindedness, considerateness, importance to human esteem and self-respect and many such principles determine business ethics.

Business ethics, generally, deals with what is right or wrong in the business. According to Wallace and Pekel, 'attention to business ethics is necessary during times of fundamental change as the moral values that were not taken seriously are strongly questioned at that time'. It is business ethics that enables the leaders and employees to act in times of crisis and confusion in the business. Business ethics is a method of dealing with unclear business problems.

Unethical problems in a business

. Managerial misbehaviour: Managerial misbehaviour includes illegal and unethical practices involved in the management of an organization.

. Moral mazes: Another broad area of business ethics is that of the 'moral mazes of management'. It includes ethical problems such as conflicts of interest, misconduct of contracts and agreements and the illegal use of resources. Business ethics has become a management discipline after the birth of the Social Responsibility Movement in 1960. This movement helped solve various social problems such as poverty, crime and illiteracy by using the finance from business class people.

To develop better relationships among people within an organization, the field of human resources emerged. As the complexity in the field of commerce has been increasing day by day, so has the need to simplify trade in an organization. The process of simplifying the commerce within an organization ensures better trading between the partners. With the growing need of simplifying trade, there emerges the discipline of business ethics. Business ethics is managed by following the ethical code and the code of conduct as set by an organization.

Myths regarding business ethics

Business ethics maintains moral values and ensures that the behaviour of employees is aligned with these values. Still, there are certain myths regarding business ethics, which are as follows:

(i) Business ethics is a matter of belief than management.

(H) Organizations believe that their employees are ethical so they are not required to pay attention to business ethics. According to Wallace, ethical conflicts arise in the following situations:

(a) When there exist significant value conflicts among differing interests of employees.

(b) When other alternatives are equally acceptable.

(c) When there are significant effects on the 'stakeholders' of an organization.

(d) According to Kirrane, people consider honesty and courtesy as the only business ethics. But when complex ethical problems come into play, most people realize that it is difficult to apply ethical principles in real life situations.

(Hi) Business ethics constitutes the principles propounded by philosophers and theologians. Many people believe that business ethics is a theoretical debate or a religion. It is believed that business ethics has little to do with the day-to-day problems of the organization. However, ethics is a management discipline that requires a planned approach and several management programmes. These programmes have an impact on other areas of management as well.

(iv) Business ethics only states the obvious do-good situations. Many people believe that ethics represents the values that a person should naturally aspire to have and, therefore, establishing codes of ethics is unnecessary. However, importance should be given to the ethical values of an organization. For example, it is obvious that all should be honest. If the employees of an organization are dishonest then honesty should be listed in the code of ethics of that organization

Code of ethics changes with the change in the society and the needs of an organization.

(v) Business ethics is an opinion. Many people believe that stress and confusion may inspire good people to behave unethically. Managing ethics in an organization includes helping each other in remaining ethical and working together through perpusing and hectic ethical dilemmas.

(vi) Business ethics is the new trend. Many people believe that business ethics is a recent phenomenon and has recently gained attention. However, it is an old phenomenon that has received importance now.

(vii) Business ethics is unmanageable by an organization. Actually, ethics is not directly 'managed' by an organization, but the behaviour of the team leader has a strong moral influence on the employees. The objectives of an organization such as maximizing profit and minimizing costs also have a strong impact on the ethics of an organization. Even the laws, regulations and rules have a good impact on the ethical values of the employees and hence minimize the harm to the business. But still, some believe that business ethics cannot be managed by an organization.

(viii) Business ethics is a social responsibility. Many people believe that ethics is social responsibility that does not deal with practical matters. Madsen and Shafritz define business ethics as an application of ethics to the corporate world. It helps in determining business dealing responsibilities and also identifies significant business and social issues.

(ix) Business ethics is not required if the organization is not in trouble with the law. People believe that unethical persons can operate within the limits of law. For example, withholding information from superiors and constantly complaining about others. However, flouting the law often starts with unethical behaviour that has gone unchecked.

(x) Business ethics has little practical significance in a business. Business ethics helps identify and prioritize the values to guide the behaviour of employees in an organization and establish associated policies and procedures for ensuring that a certain behaviour is followed.

Benefits of business ethics

The various benefits of managing ethics in a business are as follows:

. Business ethics helps in improving society by establishing government agencies,unions, laws and regulations in society.

. Business ethics helps an organization maintain ethical values during times of crisis. Business ethics programmes guide leaders about the right or wrong ways of dealing with complex dilemmas and how they should act during that time.

. Business ethics helps employees behave according to the ethical values that are preferred by the top management of an organization. An organization finds unexpected disparities between the preferred values and those reflected in the behaviour of the employees. Employees feel a strong relationship between their values and those of the organization. Ethical values induce teamwork and increase the efficiency of the employees.

. Ethics supports employee growth. When an employee pays attention to ethics, then it induces confidence among the employees to deal with reality and face both good and bad circumstances. Bennett, in his article 'Unethical Behaviour, Stress Appear Linked', explained that the more an employee is emotionally healthy, the more ethical they are.

. Ethics have become legal instruments. Nowadays, there are a number of lawsuits with regard to personnel matters and the influence of the services of the organization on the customers and investors. Major ethical principles applied in the organization are the laws that are made by the government. A greater attention on ethical issues on the part of the government ensures highly ethical policies and procedures in the workplace. For example, an employee is subject to breach of contract on non-compliance of the terms and conditions of the contract.

. Business ethics helps to avoid criminal acts 'of omission' and it also helps in lowering the fines. Ethics helps in ascertaining the violation of ethical issues and helps in rectifying the violation that is committed by the organization. The guidelines set by an organization about ethical values helps to lower fines. For example, an organization that has knowingly violated a contract is considered to have committed a criminal act and the organization is subject to penalty.

. Business ethics helps to identify and manage the values associated with quality management, strategic management and diversity management. For managing these values, ethical programmes record the values, develop policies and procedures and then provide training to the employees on these policies and procedures. These ethical programmes manage certain values of quality management, such as reliability, performance, measurement and feedback. Similarly, these programmes also manage various strategic values, such as reducing cost and increasing market share. Ethics also executes diversity programmes that distinguish and apply values of the diverse management.

. Business ethics helps in building a strong and positive public image of an organization. Ethical values enable an organization to increase their goodwill in the market. Those organizations that value their customers have a positive influence in the market. Ethical values are the milestones that enable the establishing of a successful and socially responsible business.

. Business ethics strengthens organizational culture. Ethical values improve relationships between an organization and its customers. They strengthen the organization by ensuring consistency in the standard and quality of the product.

. Business ethics makes sure that the right activities are performed in an organization.

1.5 WORK ETHOS

Work ethos or work culture refers to certain norms of behaviour governing the conduct of workers involved in a work situation to achieve certain desired objectives. of other words, work culture is the involvement of a workman with work. The degree of his involvement impacts his performance; whether he gives high or low productivity, high or low quality.

Work ethos will be different at different levels:

1.. At the basic level, it is about discipline, i.e., maintaining punctuality, coming to work on time, behaving properly with superiors, colleagues and subordinates and not wasting time during working hours.

2. At the top level, it is about commitment and accountability, to feel responsible for the task assigned to him.

3. Protecting the interests of the organization. No employee should make any adverse comments about the organization in public.

4. To perform one's jobs with devotion. The worker should contribute his best to the organization. Every man should work like a master and not like a slave, as Swami Vivekananda said.

Good work culture means the worker is fully absorbed in the work and has a high morale. On the other hand, poor work culture results in high rate of wastage, poor quality, low productivity and low morale. Work culture is also concerned with a worker's loyalty and sense of belonging to the organization. An employee is involved in an organization with 4 Ps, i.e., pay, prospect, promotion and performance. An ethical value system dictates that through performance an employee should receive pay, prospect and promotion. A sense of be longing and ideal work ethos will develop an attitude in work situations on the following lines:

(i) I am blessed to be in this situation because, compared to millions of unemployed in the country, I have the opportunity to work in this position and enjoy relatively greater benefits and a better working environment.

(ii) For whatever the organization has given me and done for me, I am grateful and whatever I do in return can never adequately compensate for them.

(iii) While it is my duty to help my subordinates and peers in enabling them to do their best for the overall welfare of the organization, it is not my business to sit in judgement over their actions, nor to take on the responsibility of reforming them to conform to what I think is right.

(iv) The law of karma ensures a perfect balance between what I give to others and what I receive from them, no matter whether it is a mere thought! action/ attitude, favorable or unfavorable, material or non-material. So there is no reason for me to feel depressed when people, things and events do not respond favorably to what I have done or feel elated when my expectations come true.

(v) All those who work with me are essentially different forms of my own true self, therefore I cannot injure others without in effect injuring my own self nor can I help them without in effect helping myself.

(vi) If another person shows a negative attitude towards me, the real cause for that lies in myself and not in that person. It is infinitely more fruitful to undergo introspection to find and root out the negative actions to thoughts negative actions to attitudes in my conduct.

(vii) No person comes into my life, no things come into my possession and no event occurs in my life unless I deserve it, in one way or the other. Instead of cursing God for being cruel to me, it is always desirable to find out the cause for it. It will invariably be deep within me in the form of thoughts and actions to attitudes. I shall try to see what lesson it has for my growth and development.

(viii) If I discharge my duties properly, my rights will be fulfilled, sooner or later. It is the divine law. It is the law of karma. It is the time-tested and confirmed theory of retribution and reward.

The seven factors responsible for poor work culture in an organization are:

1. Lack of commitment

2. Lack of discipline

3. Poor working conditions

4. Outside political interference

5. High rate of absenteeism

6. Lack of recognition of merit by management

7. Decline of general moral standards

Steps taken by management to improve work culture

1. Wages should be linked to productivity

2. Attendance bonus should be introduced

3. In organizations, the standing order copy should be given to every employee

4. Reward should be given to efficient workers

5. A prayer should be introduced to boost the morale of workers

1.6 INDIAN HERITAGE IN PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION

In early days, the Indian economy completely depended on agriculture. People produced only what was required for them to consume. The concepts of sale or exchange of goods did not exist simply because there was no need for them to. However, as years rolled by, the needs of the people kept on increasing and so did the production. People started to focus on the production of various items of luxury and daily use. As a result, they were not able to spend time and had no skills to produce other items of their use. Nevertheless, they were able to manufacture surplus goods more proficiently. Consequently, a system evolved wherein surplus items could be exchanged (or bartered) with the items of need. This process ushered the beginning of trade.

It is widely believed that India has developed a great deal in the modem times, particularly after independence, in the areas of trade and industry. Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru often referred to factories and industries as 'temples of modem India'. The extent of industrial growth in India can simply be measured by the fact that almost all goods of use are being manufactured indigenously. This, in no way implies, that there was no growth and development in these areas in the past. In fact, India has a very prosperous legacy in trade and commerce.

The beginning of India's journey in the field of trade and commerce dated far back to 5000 BC. History evidently proved that planned cites existed in India during those days and Indian fabric, jewellery and perfumes were admired by people all over the world. Currency was being used by Indian traders for the purpose of conducting business. There used to be federations to guard the interests of dealers, artisans and manufacturers. This is a clear indication of the manner in which complex development of trade and commerce occurred in ancient India. Other than a strong network of domestic trade routes, India also had established trade relations with the Arabs and the Central and South East Asian countries. India had been in the business of producing a numerous articles from metals and alloys like brass and copper. Idols, vessels, ornaments and decorative articles were some of the products falling in this category. A number of items were exported as well as imported to and from different countries across the world. It is also well known that the British initially came to India as traders, then they established their rule here. There are a number of ways which trace India's contribution to the world of trade and business. The numerical system of calculation used even globally had been developed in India. The concept of joint family and division of labour in business evolved here, which are widely functional even today. The modem methodology of customer-centric business has been a vital component of the Indian business culture since a long time. Thus, it can be concluded that India has a rich heritage in trade and commerce which has contributed to its growth globally.

Consumption of goods or consumerism has proven ties with the West. However, it is safe to conclude, that consumption takes place all over habitable land. Ancient civilizations like Egypt, Babylon and ancient Rome have had royal families, noblemen, and the aft1uent business classes who reveled in buying, using and hoarding luxury items, far beyond the realm of basic necessity. In the 19th century, the industrial revolution stressed primarily on production of goods, both for everyday necessity as well as luxury goods. During this period, mining, oil, steel, transportation networks, communications, industrial cities, etc., developed tremendously. The working class toiled long hours to produce goods for the consumption of the rich. In return, they were paid whatever little the industry owners chose to pay them. Industrialists like Henry Ford and Frederick Winslow Taylor incorporated the concept of assembly-line production that reduced costs and ensured maximum production possible.

The industrial revolution brought about an astounding turn in the history of consumerism. The assembly-line production ensured an outstanding amount of goods at the lowest possible prices. Thus began the era of mass consumption or consumerism. Thorstein Veblen, the 20th century sociologist and economist, coined the term 'conspicuous consumption' to mark the dramatic turn of events in Europe. He proposed that this unusual practice of buying unnecessary goods is a form of display of one's wealth and status.

The 21st century marks the arrival of materialism, somehow correlated with the buying of excessive and expensive technical gadgets. People, worldwide, were shifting away from spiritualism, frugality and simple living. Businesses realized that most of their clients were wealthy showoffs, and this helped them to promote new products. There was a complete lifestyle change experienced mostly at the upper levels of the social order. The middle class started aping the rich in order to create a sense of awe and admiration in the minds of friends and relatives. The reign of the era of instant gratification had begun.

In recent years, economic growth has given opportunities to people to spend lavishly. Metropolis cities and towns have begun to experience a spate of malls and chains of high end stores being opened. There is a definite upward trend in spending money on luxury items.

Challenges for MBA Students

2010-12-06T20:33:00.000-08:00

Challenges for MBA Students

Lack of soft skills, entrepreneurial skills and leadership skills are the three problems, at present, that the Indian youth have to do battle with. This article dwells at length on these issues and also focuses on the differences between leaders and managers. In the end, it calls upon the youth to face whatever challenges come their way squarely and soar like the eagle.

Indian youth are strikingly more optimistic about their own future and also about the future of society. The general picture in other countries is that young people tend to be personal optimists but societal pessimists.

-- Mats Lindgren,

CEO and Founder of Kairos Future Group

When one of the richest persons in the world, Mr. Laxmi Niwas Mittal was asked what regret he had in life, he replied that he regretted not having an MBA. He is the only Indian who leads in a particular sector globally i.e., steel sector. He has achieved success in life and accumulated a lot of wealth; ;yet, he still rues not doing MBA.

MBA is one of the most sought after qualifications in India. After completing graduation students prefer to go in for an MBA because it offers a wide range of opportunities. Engineering graduates are also opting for this degree as it widens their mental faculties as well as provides faster career growth. As a result, we find mushrooming B-Schools in India. In this context, it is essential to pursue and find out the significance and importance of this qualification. Let us also look at the various prospects and problems involving the Indian youth in this regard.

Importance of MBA

Engineers are technically competent in their trade and can excel in that specific. But it takes them in only one direction. When they are armed with this powerful degree called MBA they can not only work as engineers but also as managers. In short, they turn out to be technocrats as well as full-fledged professionals. Acquiring management qualification acts as a value addition in their career. They can work as engineers as well as managers and it paves the way for fast career growth. Besides, it inculcates entrepreneurial skills and enhances the ability to stretch their imagination levels. It is not just the case of engineers, but even doctors and other professionally qualified people are opting for this course. The advantage of management education is that any graduate can opt for this course, as it is basically management-oriented involving very little technical orientation. This itself is reason enough for any graduate to pursue this course.

With the growing population and economy more industries are bound to crop up and there would be need for more managers and leaders across the country. Therefore, there is growing importance and significance attached to this qualification.

Problems for Youth

Indian youth are plagued by lack of soft skills, entrepreneurial skills and leadership skills, which is a major cause for concern. We do not have the problem of unemployment yet. We have the problem of unemployability as the freshers after passing out do not have requisite skills and abilities to match up with the industry demands, discipline, standards and expectations. In this context, let us briefly dwell on the subject of soft skills.

Soft skills are the non-domain skills that include various skills such as communication skills, presentation skills, team-building skills and business etiquette. People should know how to deal with clients, customers and suppliers, and should know how to behave with their subordinates, peers and superiors. People are good at their domain knowledge; i.e., the area in which they are qualified and that becomes the technical knowledge, which is also known as hard skills. It is rightly said that people rise because of their hard skills, but fall due to their lack of soft skills. The present educational system encourages more of technical and domain knowledge and less of non-domain knowledge, thus resulting in unemployability.

The second problem for youth is lack of encouragement towards entrepreneurial skills. Entrepreneurship is the process of setting up an own business venture, which involves a lot of risks and returns. It is not a cakewalk. It requires energy and efforts aplenty. It takes active involvement round the clock because it involves having a business idea, mobilizing resources, proper execution skills and managing both internal and external forces and factors so as to pursue the passion of entrepreneurship.

Although Indian youth are interested in taking risks, their parents dissuade and prevent them from taking those risks. The parents want their children to get secure jobs and earn a steady and decent income. They also want their old age to be properly secured. In many western countries, there are social security measures where the government takes care of their senior citizens. There are old age homes, unemployment insurance and many other forms of protection as these countries are already developed. Since India is still a developing nation we cannot afford to provide social security measures to the citizens. Therefore, parents discourage their children from becoming entrepreneurs as there is a lot of risk involved. In the past, the Indian economy was a mixed economy and it did not encourage entrepreneurship. Ever since the economy opened up, the climate has become conducive for encouraging entrepreneurial skills among the youth.

The third problem for the Indian youth is lack of leadership qualities. Small countries with tiny populations have produced leaders in various disciplines and it is very unfortunate that India with a billion plus population could not produce global leaders in proportion to the population.

The present educational and economic environment is not encouraging leadership qualities. In some cases, there is a dearth of talent. And in some cases, there is talent, which is not tapped enough to develop leaders. We do not have sufficient training institutes that encourage leadership traits.

Industry Expectations

The industry looks for `plug-and-play' recruits most of the time. They want the recruited employees to be on their toes right from day one. They want the freshers to be industry-ready so that they can be productive and useful as soon as they join without wasting much time in their training. However, this is not the scenario. Lot of jobs are available and the industry is not getting competent manpower. There are a few traits that the industry expects freshers to have. These are: learnabilty (the ability and capability to learn new tools and techniques), absorbability (the ability to grasp and understand new tasks), suitability (looking for the right peg to fit in the hole—nobody would like to have a round peg in a square hole, or a square peg in a round hole), capability (the ability to execute the challenging tasks at ease is another trait expected from the industry), and other skills such as adaptability, flexibility, assertiveness, team spirit, communication, leadership skills and last, but not the least, the passion to learn and grow. To put it succinctly, they look for the right mindset, tool set and skill set.

Infosys, the Indian IT giant, started a program titled `Campus Connect' where the faculties of various institutions would be shortlisted, selected and called for soft skills workshops. It is a kind of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). The faculties are trained free of cost who, in turn, would train the faculties in their respective institutions. And the faculties provide training to the students on soft skills and other skills that are needed for the students to get placed in the industry. Likewise, many IT companies are taking the initiative in this regard. It is an indication that everyone is realizing the importance and significance of employability skills and its results would be felt in the near future. It is like a ripple effect.

Challenges

Students work hard in an attempt to climb the ladder to success only to realize that the ladder has been placed on the wrong side of the wall. It indicates that the youth lack sense of direction, guidance and counseling. They set the goals because of parental or peer influence or sometimes because of the herd instinct. In the long run, it does not give them any satisfaction, on the contrary, resulting in frustration and fatigue. While planning for their career the youth should look for four As—Aptitude, Attitude, Abilities and Awareness. When their career is planned this way, they can easily accomplish their goals and career aspirations.

Because of growing technology, the business environment has become highly challenging and, as a result, the employees have to deliver their best to meet the rising demands of the consumers. During this process, if any employee fell short of expectations he would be given the pink slip. There is a lot of risk involved even in employment. The youth should learn to perform well or else be prepared to perish. It is a case of `do or die', where non-performing and inefficient employees are shown the door. There is more need for smart work rather than hard work.

Leaders and Managers

Management is doing things right; leadership is doing the right things.

-- Peter Drucker

There is a vast difference between leaders and managers. Let us look at some differences between the two. Managers are efficient while leaders are effective. Managers climb the ladder whereas leaders place the ladder on the right side of the wall. Managers are the machinery while leaders are the visionaries. Leaders know what to do, whereas managers know how to do. Managers put in hard work whereas leaders put in smart work. To put it in a nutshell, if managers are the actors leaders are the directors. However, since a few years, there has been growing emphasis on managerial leaders, which is a combination of managerial and leadership qualities and, of course, the combination of hard work and smart work.

Overseas Indians

Indians are doing extraordinarily well across the seas because of various reasons. Laxmi Niwas Mittal has achieved excellence by becoming a worldwide leader in the steel sector and also one of the top five richest people in the world. Pepsi Chief, Indra Nooyi, is one of the most powerful women in the world, a symbol of success, and a guiding and motivating model for Indian women managers. They could do it because of several reasons such as more opportunities overseas and also probably because they have moved from the comfort zone to the effective zone. Renowned Motivational Guru Zig Zigler Zig said, "97% of the people live in the comfort zone and only 3% of the people live in the effective zone. And success comes to the people who live in the effective zone." Successful people keep shifting their orbits and reinvent themselves as per the changing conditions and scenario.

Conclusion

To sum up, Indian youth definitely have an exciting future and a promising career with an MBA degree. By improving and developing soft skills, entrepreneurial skills and leadership qualities they can definitely leave a mark behind.

Message

Education and character are two sides of the same coin. When you have these two, you can succeed in any part of the world. Never complain like the duck, but soar like the eagle, as the eagle symbolizes leadership

MBA Ist Semester Question Paper 2008

2010-12-06T20:07:00.000-08:00

G 6566 (Pages: 2) Reg. No.................................

Name.....................................

M.B.A. DEGREE EXAMINATION, FEBRUARY 2008

First Semester

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Time : Three Hours Maximum : 60 Marks

Section A

Answer all questions. Each question carries 3 marks.

I. Briefly explain the different elements of the communication process with the help of a model.

II. Enumerate the characteristics of a good speech.

III. In business, where would you use written communication in preference to oral communication ?

IV. Distinguish between Interoffice and Intra office communication used in business.

V. Explain the difference between hearing and listening.

(5 x 3 = 15 marks)

Section B

Answer all questions. Each question carries 5 marks.

VI. "Communicators should take an audience-centred approach to communication"—Comment.

Or

What is meant by media of communication ? Broadly discuss the relative merits and demerits of the different communication media.

VII. What are the different forms of oral communication ? How can oral communication be made effective ?

': Or

What important points should a chairman of a meeting keep in mind in order to run the meeting smoothly and successfully.

] VIII. What is meant by "direct" and "indirect" form of organisation in business letters ? Explain the circumstances under which you would use these two forms.

Or

How are visuals important in report writing ? Explain the different forms of .visuals used, indicating where you would use each type.

IX. Discuss how the different formal and informal communication channels are used in an organisation.

Office order asking the employees not to use the office telephone for personal purposes.

Turn over

2 G6566

X. Briefly discuss the changes brought about in the field of communication by the recent advances in electronics and information technology.

Or

What is meant by "body language" ? Explain how body language can influence the meaning of the message that is verbally conveyed.

(5 x 5 = 25 marks) Section C Compulsory question.

XI. Your company's baby food is facing stiff competition from a rival product introduced in Tamilnadu recently. You have been asked to visit the State and investigate the matter. Prepare a short report containing your findings to be submitted to the Chairman. Assume any data required.

(20 marks)

BHARATA MATA INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT, THRIKKAKARA

M.B.A. INTERNAL EXAMINATION, AUGUST 2009

First Semester

BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
Time: 1/2 hrs Maximum: 30 Marks

Answer all questions.

All questions carry equal marks.

1. (a) What are the objectives of downward communication in an organization? Explain

how such communication can be made more effective.

Or

(b) Enumerate the characteristics of a good speech. What should be the determining

factors in the use of visual aids in oral report?

2. (a) State the advantages and disadvantages of oral communication. You have to appear

for a Job interview. What would you do to ensure good performance?

Or

(b) Distinguish between Public Speaking and Business Presentations. How will you

make your oral presentation effective?

3. (a) Discuss the different style of speeches. What are the important barriers associated

with “cultural factors” in communication?

Or

(b) “ Communicators should take an audience-centred approach to communication”-

Comment.

(3x10=30Marks

1570

(Pages: 2)

M.B.A. DEGREE EXAMINATION, FEBRUARY 2008

First Semester

ECONOMICS FOR MANAGEMENT

: Three Hours Maximum : 60 Marks

Section A

Answer any five questions. Each question carries 3 marks.

1. What is Managerial Economics ?

2. Distinguish between GNP and GDP.

3. What is fiscal policy ?

4. Distinguish money market and capital market.

5. Define Elasticity of demand.

6. What is non-price competition ?

7. What do you mean by equilibrium of a firm ?

8. What are 'opportunity costs' ? Give two examples.

(5 x 3 = 15 marks)

Section B

Answer all questions. Each question carries 5 marks.

9. How is the national income analysis useful for managerial decision-making ?

Or

10. Briefly describe the various steps taken by the Government in controlling inflation in India.

11. Describe the various methods adopted to connect an adverse balance of payment position.

Or

12. What are the external factors affecting money supply of a country ?

13. Explain the features of Indian money market.

Or

14. Describe the important functions of a Commercial Bank in India.

Turn over

15. "Long run price elasticity is greater than short run elasticity" — Explain.

Or

16. What are the conditions for successful price discrimination by a monopolist ?

17. Define production function and explain iso-quants and iso-cost curves with examples.

Or

18. Explain the managerial uses of Break even analysis in decision-making.

(5 x 5 = 25 marks)

Section C

Compulsory question. It carries 20 marks.

19. Maruti Udyog Limited

Maruti Udyog Limited is a classic example of monopoly in spare parts, servicing, repairs etc. Along with its authorised dealers, the MUL is looting the Maruti vehicle users.

Often one has to change the clutch plate twice in six months and pay Rs.3,567. Maruti Udyog charges the price of clutch at imported cost while clutch plate is actually made by Clutch Auto. Pvt. Ltd. at Faridabad.

The replacement of a silencer costs Rs. 800. The costs of spare parts and repairs by any reckoning is three to four times compared to Ambassador or Fiat.

A random sample indicates that every eighth car has faulty clutch. In the context of defective parts and exorbitant cost of repairs, saving in fuel in Maruti as compared to other makes is of little consequence.

Maruti vehicle users are in a dilemma. They cannot get spare parts or get their cars repaired except through Maruti Udyog or through its authorised dealers. But both charge fantastic amounts and do not give guarantee even for a day. Maruti Udyog is thus callous to the genuine grievances of its customers.

Questions:

(a) Define a monopoly. State the main features of a monopoly.

(b) Why is Maruti Udyog called a monopoly ? Does it enjoy monopoly in car manufacture ?

(c) In what ways does a customer suffer because of Maruti's monopoly.

(d) What is the way out ?

[Hint: A Maruti Users' Association may be formed to consider legal actions under MRTP Act or Consumer Protection Act.]

(20 marks

6567

(Pages: 3)

M.B.A. DEGREE EXAMINATION, FEBRUARY 2008

First Semester

BUSINESS AND ETHICAL VALUES

: Three Hours

Maximum : 60 Marks

Section A

Answer all questions. Each question carries 3 marks.

(5 x 3 = 15 marks)

1. What is ethics ?

2. Define capitalism.

3. What are the types of ethical dilemmas ?

4. What is ethical leadership ?

5. Explain social audit

Section B

Answer all questions. Each question carries 5 marks.

6. (a) Describe nature of ethics.

O (b) Explain the various universal monal principles.

7. (a) Discuss various motives to indulge in unfair practices in marketing functions.

Or (b) Bring out salient features of ethical issues in chine.

8. (a) Discuss dilemmas in modern business in general management and policy areas.

Or (b) What is layoff and bring out its ethical and unethical aspects.

9. (a) Explain how manager as a leader influences business ethics in a company.

Or (b) Explain how ethical value system can be built up in MNC.

Turn over

10. (a) Explain how technology is used and misused in relation to ethical issues.

Or

(b) Write an essay on corporate governance initiative in India.

(5 x 5 = 25 marks)

Section C

Compulsory Question.

This question carries 20 marks.

Answer the question given at the end of the case.

11. ON SETTING STANDARDS

Special steel company limited (SSCL) is a reputed company and specializes in alloy steel manufacturing in Nagpur. The company turnover is 650 crores in last fiscal and has quality reputation in the market. Since it entered market in mid 70's. It exported materials worth Rs. 69 crore. Growth rate of the company is 11% and SSCL is looking forward for brown field expansion of its capacities. SSCL markets its products at competitive prices in all industrial towns in India. The exports are handled from its head office in Nagpur and export division in Mumbai. The domestic marketing is divided in 4 Zones, North with its office in Delhi, South Zonal Office in Chennai. Similarly Eastern Zonal Office, Kolkatta. Mumbai is Western Zonal Office and also in addition handled exports and imports activities.

The company by practice has established good ethical standards. The standards were by the chairman of the SSCL Aravind Jain. The company executives were known for their integrity and hard work and thus taking the company to growth path. Chairman of SSCL was assisted by Board of Directors and Company Secretary. The functional and full time directors were in the area of Finance, Production, Marketing, HRD and Project. Director marketing and Director Project used to go on tours frequently to Delhi, Kolkatta, Chennai and Mumbai and to overseas on their work. The tour frequencies were almost weekly. Regular co-ordination and follow up of activities were done in department and Zonal meetings.

Last Saturday Aravind Jain was following news item on Star News. He was shocked to see news flash that the Marketing Director K. Ram of SSCL was alledged for molestation of a lady employee serving in his office in Mumbai. The Mumbai police were looking for Ram for arresting and further action. Ram was in Delhi on Saturday. Jain Telephone imemdiately . Zonal Manager in SSCL Mumbai and Delhi, so that he can get first hand information, He was angry that he should get his company information through TV news.

The Zonal Manager Delhi informed that he was not aware of any Mumbai incident. The Zonal Manager Mumbai was not available in his house in Mulund (a suburb of Mumbai). Even after 2 days there was not news or whereabouts of the Mumbai Zonal Manager. TV news on 3rd Day gave that Mumbai police were searching the absconding K. Ram, Marketing Director of SSCL.

Newspapers and weekly business magazines published news articles on the subject. A business weekly gave a story with photographs of K. Ram and the lady employee giving their side of the story.

Ram aged 54, is a marketing wiz-kid and considered good in exports and international

negotiations. Son of Ram was in UK as a software engineer, Ram's story gave that the lady

employee, a secretary in Mumbai office, did come to his five star hotel room and went away.

The TV story was made up by Competitor Company to tarnish SSCL image. The lady employee

contended that she was called by Ram along with Zonal Manager for official work to the hotel.

In the hotel room Ram molested her telling that she will be promoted as officer shortly. The

I lady ran and lodges FIR in police station. The lady was middle aged and has a son going tohigh school.

The next week TV news said "Ram, Director of SSCL surrenders to Mumbai police. Police took him to custody and produced in Magistrate Court. The court granted bail to Ram."

Questions:

1 Discuss the ethical issues of the company involved in this case.

2 What are reactions on the issue from different stake holders of SSCL ?

3 (a) What actions you suggest that Jain should take immediately ? and (b) Policy decisions to stop such recurrences.

(1 x 20 = 20 marks)

F 6570 (Pages: 2) Reg. No.

Name.....

M.B.A. DEGREE EXAMINATION, FEBRUARY 2008

First Semester

ECONOMICS FOR MANAGEMENT

Time : Three Hours Maximum : 60 Mark

Section A

Answer any five questions. Each question carries 3 marks.

1. What is Managerial Economics ?

2. Distinguish between GNP and GDP.

3. What is fiscal policy ?

4. Distinguish money market and capital market.

5. Define Elasticity of demand.

6. What is non-price competition ?

7. What do you mean by equilibrium of a firm ?

8. What are 'opportunity costs' ? Give two examples.

(5 x 3 = 15 marks

Section B

Answer all questions. Each question carries 5 marks.

9. How is the national income analysis useful for managerial decision-making ?

Or

10. Briefly describe the various steps taken by the Government in controlling inflation in India.

11. Describe the various methods adopted to connect an adverse balance of payment position.

Or

12. What are the external factors affecting money supply of a country ?

13. Explain the features of Indian money market.

Or

14. Describe the important functions of a Commercial Bank in India.

Turn over

15. "Long run price elasticity is greater than short run elasticity" - Explain.

Or

16. What are the conditions for successful price discrimination by a monopolist ?

17. Define production function and explain iso-quants and iso-cost curves with examples.

Or

18. Explain the managerial uses of Break even analysis in decision-making.

(5x5 = 25 marks)

Section C

Compulsory question. It carries 20 marks.

19. Maruti Udyog Limited

Maruti Udyog Limited is a classic example of monopoly in spare parts, servicing, repairs etc. Along with its authorised dealers, the MUL is looting the Maruti vehicle users.

Often one has to change the clutch plate twice in six months and pay Rs.3,567. Maruti Udyog charges the price of clutch at imported cost while clutch plate is actually made by Clutch Auto. Pvt. Ltd. at Faridabad.

The replacement of a silencer costs Rs. 800. The costs of spare parts and repairs by any reckoning is three to four times compared to Ambassador or Fiat.

A random sample indicates that every eighth car has faulty clutch. In the context of defective parts and exorbitant cost of repairs, saving in fuel in Maruti as compared to other makes is of little consequence.

Maruti vehicle users are in a dilemma. They cannot get spare parts or get their cars repaired except through Maruti Udyog or through its authorised dealers. But both charge fantastic amounts and do not give guarantee even for a day. Maruti Udyog is thus callous to the genuine grievances of its customers.

Questions:

(a) Define a monopoly. State the main features of a monopoly.

(b) Why is Maruti Udyog called a monopoly ? Does it enjoy monopoly in car manufacture ?

(c) In what ways does a customer suffer because of Maruti's monopoly.

(d) What is the way out ?

[Hint: A Maruti Users' Association may be formed to consider legal actions under MRTP Act or Consumer Protection Act.]

(20 marks)

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

2010-11-26T01:51:00.000-08:00

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Syllabus

Course Objective

The course acquaints the students with the environmental issues surrounding business and help them to develop a perspective for effectively managing these issues.

Module I

Concept of sustainable global development – Issues affecting ecological equilibrium – population growth – depletion of natural resources – industrial and urban population –global warming .

ModuleII

Impact of industrial and business activities on the environment –role of competition and consumerism – issues in environment management for business – Natural resources and energy management – optimal use of fossil fuels – use of non –conventional energy resources.

Module III

Concern for environment: in produce development- production process-packaging – distribution – marketing – strategies for ensuring environment friendly business operations – green funding – environmental ethics.

Module IV

Managing industrial pollution – developing recycling technologies – managing industrial waste – maintaining bio-diversity – government and institutional support for establishing and maintaining environment friendly business.

Module V

Environment impact studies and assessment – Environment accounting and audit – environment managing system – EMS standards – ISO 14000 – international initiatives for environment management – WTO provisions and other international treaties – issues and challenges for environment management in the globalized world.

                                    UNIT 1

ECOLOGICAL EQUILIBRIUM AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Sustainable development is the method of using resources strategically, so as to retain them for the future. The term was used by the Brundtland Commission which coined what has become the most popular definition of sustainable development as development that 'meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.' In this unit, you will study about the concept of sustainable global development in detail. You will be familiarized with ecology, ecological balance and about the issues affecting ecological equilibrium. The unit will deal with problems such as population growth, natural resources and their depletion, industrial and urban population, and global warming. Along with a detailed discussion of the topics mentioned, the unit will also discuss the ways to overcome these problems.

1.2 SUSTAINABLE GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT

Sustainable development is the development that meets the needs of the present without jeopardizing the needs of the future generations. In other words, every generation should leave air, water and soil resources pure and unpolluted. Although it is a difficult proposition, it can be achieved through proper environmental management. Sustainable development has three important interdependent components, which are as follows:

(i) Economic development: Utilization of natural resources for cultivation,industrialization, creating job opportunities and raising quality of life.

(ii) Social development: Providing basic needs like food, clothes, shelter,health, education, etc.

(iii) Environmental protection: Providing clean water, air, soil, i.e., safe environment to the present as. well as the future generations.

Human civilization through their excellence in scientific and technological fields has reached a level where they can produce more of their own kinds by cloning, exploit lands of other planets and receive information from any part of the world. However, at the same time, human civilization is facing the greatest challenge for survival due to the catastrophe created through environmental degradation.

To meet the basic requirements of ever increasing population, industrialization is a must, but it results in pollution, environmental degradation and causes ecological imbalances. At the same time, industrial development cannot be sacrificed as it creates job opportunities, raises the standard of living and solves unemployment problems. In view of this, a balance has to be struck so that development and environmental protection can occur simultaneously. To achieve this goal, sustainable development is the only answer. Development can take place if the following concepts are taken care of: Control of population growth

. Reduction in excessive usage of resources and enhancing resource conservation, i.e., continuous use of renewable resources and protection of non-renewable resources from wastage and rapid depletion
Recycling and reuse of materials for waste minimization Scientific management of renewable resources, especially bio-resources,which have a life cycle and inherent sustainable qualities

However, without proper social and economic development, sustainable development cannot he achieved. In order to do so, we will have to eradicate poverty through almost equal distribution of resources, support social justice and equality.

1.3 ECOLOGICAL EQUILIBRIUM

Ecology is a branch of science that deals with the interrelationship between biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) components of nature, as well as with the relationshipamong the individuals, population and community of the biotic components.The term 'ecology' is derived from two Greek words-oikos (meaning house) and logos (meaning study of)-and is used to denote the relationship between the organisms and their environment.

Ecology has been defined in a number of ways. According to Woodbury (1954), 'Ecology is a science which investigates organisms in relation to their environment.' E.P. Odum (1969) defined ecology as 'the study of structure and function of nature'. The most acceptable definition of ecology was proposed by Charles Krebs (1985), who maintained: 'Ecology is the scientific study of the interaction that determines the distribution and abundance of organisms. '

In ecology, the term 'habitat' is used to denote the place where the population of an organism or species lives, for example, a pond. The pond is the habitat of zooplankton and fish. 'Niche' is the fundamental unit of the population of an organism or species in the community. Whereas 'habitat' is the place where an organism lives, 'niche' is the activity (functional) aspect of the organism. 'Population' is used to denote groups of individuals of anyone kind of organism and' community' or biotic community includes all the populations of a given area, called habitat.

Ecology plays a significant role in our day-to-day life. It is concerned with agriculture, horticulture, conservation of soil, forest, wildlife, water resources, etc.

Objectives of ecology

The importance of ecology is due to the presence of man in the ecosystem. Man interacts not only with its own species, but also with other living organisms. There are millions of organisms in dynamic coexistence with each other and each one of them plays a significant role in the ecosystem. Ecology, thus, has broad objectives and provides a scientific basis for the aims of environmentalism, as well as for evaluating its goals and policies. Ecology does not dictate what is 'right' or 'wrong' , but provides knowledge about the quantification of biodiversity and population dynamics. The objective of ecology is to understand the dynamics of our surroundings and to take proper measures to conserve it if and when required. However, the main objective of ecology is to study the following:

. The local and geographical distribution and abundance of organisms

. The inter-relationship among organisms in population and communities

. The structural adaptations and functional adjustments of organisms to their physical environment

. The behaviour of organisms under natural conditions

. The biological productivity of nature and its relationship with mankind

. Temporal changes in the occurrence, abundance and activities of organisms . Conservation and management of natural resources and pollution

Classification of ecology

Ecology is a broad discipline comprising of many sub-disciplines. A common, broad classification, going from the lowest to the highest complexity, where complexity can be defmed as the number of entities and processes in the system under study is as follows:

. Physiological ecology (eco-physiology) and behavioural ecology: It examines adaptations of an individual to his environment.

. Population ecology (or autoecology): It studies the dynamics of population of a single species.

. Community ecology (or synecology): It deals with the interactions between species within an ecological community.

. Ecosystem ecology: It studies the flows of energy and matter through the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems.

. Landscape ecology: It examines the processes occurring in multiple ecosystems or very large geographic areas and studies the relationship between the processes.

Ecology, however, can also be sub-divided into many other branches, such as animal ecology, plant ecology, insect ecology, desert ecology, pedology, palaeoecology, ethology, space ecology.

1.3.1 Ecological Balance

Ecological balance or stability ecosystem of the implies a balance between the production and consumption of each component in the ecosystem. According to T.D. Brock, 'Steady state condition in natural ecosystem is a time independent condition in which production and consumption of each constituent in the system is exactly balanced, the concentration of all constituents within the system remains constant, even though there occurs a continual change.'

There are a number of theories, mechanisms and models to explain the stability Of the ecosystem. The important ones are as follows:

(i) Theory of diversity or stability: If there is diversity of food webs, it.will lead to an increase in number of links in the food web and if community succession operates in an ecosystem, the stability will increase.

(ii) Homeostatic mechanism: Inbuilt, self-regulating mechanism is known as homeostatic mechanism. If within an ecosystem the population of species increases significantly, the result will be scarcity of food, leading to competition for food. Most species will die of starvation and the species population will be brought back to its original value and the stability will be restored.

(iii) Models: The equilibrium, as well as non-equilibrium model can explain stability. Thus, if the ecosystem is disturbed by external factors, it may quickly return to its original state by some adjustments, restoring the stability. However, if it does not return to its original state, the disordered arrangement might lead to cross-relationships and make the system stable.

1.3.2 Issues Affecting Ecological Equilibrium

Ecological factors

In an ecosystem, a living organism is influenced by a large number of environmental factors. These environmental factors are known as ecological factors or eco-factors.

These factors may be biotic (living) or abiotic (non-living). All the environmental factors bring marked distributional, structural and functional changes in orgmri.sms. To live, grow and carry out all its activities, an organism requires a harmonious relationship with its immediate environment. The differences in vegetation of a desert and a rain forest, fish in sweet water and saline water, animals in tropical countries and cold countries, clearly indicate the role of environmental factors in the distribution and survival of organisms in different eco-systems.

The organisms subjected to diurnal, seasonal, annual and cyclic relations of the environment, develop strategies to cope with these changes for their survival. Only those which are able to cope with the conditions, remain and those who cannot, become extinct.

The ecological factors can be classified into the following:

1. Climatic factors: (i) light (ii) temperature (iii) nature (iv) rainfall (v) wind (vi) humidity (vii) atmospheric gases (viii) pH.
A variation in these factors affects the distribution and lifestyle of organisms.

2. Topographic factors: (i) altitude (ii) slope and direction of mountain chain and valleys.

3. Edaphic factors: Structure, formation and characteristics of different types of soils.

4. Biotic factors: Biotic factors are derived from the interactions between different species of life (intra-specific as well as inter-specific). The different species mentioned here are plants, micro-organisms and animals.

5. Limiting factors: Denote the amount of substance that is either least abundant or over abundant in relation to the need of the living organism.
Climatic factors

(i) Light

Light plays a vital role for both plants and animals. Sunlight is the ultimate source of energy for the biological world. Light is highly essential for photosynthesis, plays an important role in respiration and transpiration, regulates hormones in plants thereby modifying the shape and size and influences the growth and development of flowers, fruits, germination and distribution of plants.

As far as animals are concerned, light influences reproduction and metabolism.

(ii) Heat

Like light, heat exerts a profound influence on the physiological and biochemical activities of organisms. Generally, organisms prefer to conduct their activities in a temperature region of 4°C to 45°C. The physiological effects of temperature are the mineral absorption in plants, water intake, growth, germination in plants and distribution, migration, hibernation and reproductive activities in animals. Both plants and animals exhibit morphological, ecological and physiological adaptation to the variation in temperature. The biochemical effects are due to enzymes and hormonal changes and are related to the temperature.

(iii) Water

Water is one of the most important materials necessary for life. All the physiological processes take place in water. The availability of water in an ecosystem affects the distribution, growth and other activities of its organisms.

(iv) Rainfall

Rainfall (precipitation) determines the type of vegetation in any region. Tropical regions support thick evergreen forests as it experiences heavy rainfall throughout the year. Grasslands are found in regions where there is heavy rainfall in summer and low rainfall in winter. Due to changes in vegetation, animals and birds in various regions also differ.

(v) Wind

Wind brings physical, anatomical and physiological changes to plants. Excessive transpiration due to wind leads to desiccation and death of apical mersistems. Thus, the plants become dwarf, contain small leaves and more branches. On the mountains, due to the danger of uprooting, the vegetation is composed of species having prostrate growth, with long underground roots. This is known as growth of rhizome type.

(vi) Humidity

The physiological activities of organisms, like transpiration, absorption of water, etc., are greatly influenced by humidity. Thus, humidity plays an important role in the life of plants and animals.

(vii) Atmospheric gases

Gases like nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water vapour and inert gases are essential for sustaining life. However, gases like sulphur dioxide (SO), nitrogen dioxide (NO), hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and smoke particles from the industries have a major influence on the environment and lead to various physiological changes in plants and animals.

(viii) pH

pH can be a deciding factor in aquatic ecosystem, as far as distribution of organisms is concerned. For aquatic animals as well as for organisms on land, the pH should not be too acidic or too alkaline. For every species, there is an optimum pH level at which they can survive. Large scale industrialization and the discharge of effluents into

water bodies or the soil change the pH level to a great extent, endangering the lives of orgasms’.

Topographic factors

The physical geographical factors are known as topographic factors. These factors include altitude, slope and direction of mountain chains and valleys. All these factors

affect the climatic conditions of a place and thereby influence the distribution of

organisms. With rise in altitude, there is progressive fall in temperature and as we go higher, with a decrease in temperature there is greater activity of the wind. A decrease in soil temperature reduces the absorption of water and nutrients by the plants. In higher altitudes, the atmospheric pressure and decreased concentration of oxygen affects animals, particularly mammals. The slope and direction of mountain chains have a pronounced effect on the amount of solar radiation, rainfall, wind velocity, temperature and on the whole, the climate of the area. This, in turn, affects vegetation patterns and thus, the distribution of animals.

Edaphic factors deal with the structure formation and characteristics of different types of soils.

Soil provides mechanical anchorage to plants and holds water and mineral ions for the plants. They provide a basis for the activities of micro-organisms and animals. Soil contains organic and inorganic colloids, electrolytes, organic matter and soil organism. Soil water forms the lifeline of soil organisms, since proper growth of micro-organisms and invertebrate population within the soil occurs in soil containing adequate moisture. Water is a solvent for the organic nutrients as well as minerals and thus, its contents regulate the physiological, morphological and anatomical features of plants.

Air, found in soil pores, contains CO2, °2' and N2 while their quantity differs from soil to soil. Soil air is a very important edaphic factor that determines the types of micro-organisms, soil animals and vegetation that can grow in the soil. Similar to soil water, it also brings about morphological, physiological and anatomical changes in plants and animals.

The temperature of the soil is very important as it affects the growth of micro¬organisms, plants and animals. The temperature influences growth of the roots, the ability of the roots to absorb nutrients and movement of organisms.

Soil pH and salinity are also important because when the pH of the soil is very high (highly alkaline) grows on the soil no vegetation. Soil organisms like bacteria, fungi, algae and animals like protozoa, nematodes, earthworms modify the structure of the soil, increase soil fertility, and help to form humus. Nitrogen fixing bacteria and blue-green algae fix atmospheric nitrogen and increase soil fertility. Thus, a change in any of the soil constituents will have a tremendous effect on the whole.

Biotic factors

The living components (animals and plants) of the environment are considered as biotic factors. Organisms in the environment interact among themselves and this may be intra-specific (between populations of same organism) or inter-specific (between populations of different species). Some of the interactions are mutually beneficial while some are beneficial to only one species without harming the others or by harming the others. These interactions are very essential for the occurrence of the biotic factors. Based on the nature of the influence, these interactions can be classified as follows:

(i) Symbiosis

In symbiosis, two different species depend upon each other metabolically and thus, are mutually benefitted. The species are known as symbionts. For example, Rhizobium bacteria and leguminous roots are the symbionts. In this case, the bacteria get protective space to live in and derive readymade food from leguminous roots. The leguminous roots, on the other hand, utilize the fixed nitrogen in the bacteria to manufacture proteins.

(ii) Commensalism

In this case, one species is benefited while the other either benefits or remains neutral. The members are called the commensals and this association, is known as commensalism. For example, some algae and fungi join together to form a different life form known as lichens. The algae manufacture food through photosynthesis, which the fungi utilize and in return, the fungi protects the algae from drying up and together both colonize tree barks, rocks, etc.

Some terrestrial insects and marine animals share the nest or burrow of others without causing any damage to it.

(iii) Parasitism

In this case, there are two different species, i.e., one is the parasite and the other, host. In this relationship, it is the parasite that is benefited and the host harmed. The two different species may be two plants or animals; for example, mosquitoes, bedbugs, lice are the parasites which live on hosts like animal and man, harming them.

(iv) Epiphytism

In this case, epiphytes grow on other plants, but do not derive food from them; for . example, Lianas, a woody plant has roots in the ground but takes the support of other plants to climb.

Some carnivorous plants, like Nepenthes, a pitcher plant, grows on other plants but derives food from insects. They have folded leaf lamina, modified into a pitcher-like structure with a lid. Zooplankton enters into the structure through the lid, gets trapped and the soft parts of its body gets digested by the Nepenthes.

(v) Competition

Organisms survive on some materials and if these are found inadequate, competition occurs. This competition may be both intra-specific and inter-specific. This leads to the survival or dominance of certain species over others. As all species cannot tolerate same range of temperature, humidity, etc., only those who can, Survive.

Limiting factors

Limiting factors denote the amount of substance that is either least abundant or overabundant in relation to the need of the living organism. Limiting factors may be density dependent, for example, when the food stock is fixed for a given density of population, overpopulation will lead to scarcity of food.

Limiting factor may be density independent, for example, earthquake or tsunami may wipe out an entire population irrespective of whether there are few or many. The density independent limiting factors affecting living organisms may be abiotic factors like climate, soil, wind, temperature, water, etc., or other biotic factors. Some climatic conditions may not be tolerable to certain species and might reduce their population, or in extreme cases, make them extinct. If the soil does not have proper amount 01 nutrients, air and moisture, the plants will not prepare balanced and sufficient amount of food to support animal life, reducing their population. Biotic factors are the most important limiting factors that influence the growth and distribution of plants and animals.

Laws of limiting factors

To explain the effect of different limiting factors on living organisms, number of laws and principles have been proposed by different scientists. They are as follows:

1. Liebig's Law of Minimum: An organism requires minimum quantity of a particular nutrient for its proper growth and if it is depicted below the critical minimum level, the organism will fail to grow or will grow abnormally; for example, if the soil is deficient in anyone nutrient, it will make the other nutrient metabolically inactive and the proper growth of the plant will get restricted.

2. Blackman's Law of Limiting Factor: A biological process is controlled by a number of factors and the deficiency of any of these factors will affect the process on the whole; for example, photosynthesis by plants. Photosynthesis is dependent on the correct amount of water, carbon

dioxide, chlorophyll, intensity of solar radiation and temperature of chloroplast. A deficiency of any of these factors will affect the rate of photosynthesis.

3. Shelford's Law of Tolerance: The law states that, it is not only that the minimum amount of a material can be a limiting factor, but also the excess amount of the same material can be limiting to the growth and development of an organism; for example, all the soil nutrients are equally important for the growth and development of plants, but anything in excess might limit the uptake of the other nutrient, restricting the proper growth.

Every organism, thus, has an ecological minimum and maximum for every factor and the range between two limits is known as limit or zone of tolerance. Thus, every environmental factor has two zones:

(i) Zone of tolerance

(ii) (ii) Zone of intolerance

(i) Zone of tolerance: This zone is favourable for the growth and development of all organisms. Zone of tolerance can be sub-divided into the following (see Figure 1.1):

(a) Optimum zone: It is the most favourable zone for the growth and development of an organism.

(b) Critical minimum zone: It is the lowest minimum limit below which growth and development of the organism ceases.

(c) Critical maximum zone: It is the highest maximum limit above which growth and development of the organism ceases.

(ii) Zone of intolerance: Tolerance with respect to various factors differs from species to species. Organisms that have a wide range of tolerance for all factors have a better chance of survival, and hence, are widely distributed.

Ecological instability

When an ecosystem is unable to adjust to the environmental changes, it is said to be unstable. The instability occurs due to a number of natural and anthropogenic activities such as destruction of natural vegetation and animal species, partly or completely or by replacing them by other vegetations and animals, introduction of toxic substances like insecticides and pesticides and toxic gases like S02' N02, etc.

1.4POPULATION GROWTH

The environmental problems we are facing today are multidisciplinary in nature and mainly arise due to population explosion and overexploitation of natural resources. The world population is increasing rapidly and if the present trend continues, it may cross 8 billion in 2025 and by 2100 it may reach 15 billion Population growth mainly contributes to all the world problems. With an increase in population size as well as population density, there is a great impact on the natural resources. However, it is not only population size and density, but also the technological development as well as the availability of resources that contribute to the impact on a country's natural resources. The highly developed countries, no! only due to less population size and density but due to more available resourced and developed technology, consume larger amount of resources than the people 01 third world countries like India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, etc. Therefore, although population control cannot completely eliminate environment related problems, if can reduce the rate of environmental degradation. The population explosion in Indi! is severe. From 1950 to 1992 the population has gone up from 360 million to 88~ million and is expected to reach approximately 1,400 million by the year 2025, India not only has the second highest population in the world, but the population density is also quite high with 325 persons per square kilometer In the rest of the world, it is 42 persons per square kilometer. China although has the highest population with 20 per cent more compared to India, it has an area thrice than that of our country. Similarly, for other developed countries, there is less population but more area. Table 1.1 illustrates population growth rates of some countries.

Table 1.1 Population Growth Rates for Some Countries

Country ,Population Birth per1000, Death per 1000,Infant mortality Rate of in million 1000

China             1240            17      7      31      1.0

India               990             27     9       72    2,0

USA               270            15      9        7       0.6

Russia            150              9      14      17    - 0,

Germany        83              10      10      5    - 0.1

There is a significant relationship between the education of women and fertility as well as superstition, religious fanatism which leads to population explosion. in India, education for the female child is very poor and at the same time people believe in having more children to increase their earnings. The desire to have sons instead of daughters has also contributed significantly to an increase in the population.

Family welfare programmes by the government can control population growth. The legal age for marriage should be raised and measures to control birth rate should lie popularized.Various contraceptive methods should be applied so that it is accepted by all sections of the society. Abortion can also be an alternative.

The overexploitation of resources due to population explosion and human greed has led to: (i) deforestation (ii) depletion and contamination of surface and ground water (iii) depletion of non-renewable fuels (iv) depletion of non-renewable minerals (v) depletion of biodiversity.

The present environmental crisis lie in the paradigms of scientific materialism and economic determinism, which is yet to learn the limits imposed by eco-systems on economic activity. The economics, therefore, should only expand within the eco systems which have limited regenerative capacities. Sustainable development can be the only solution and it must follow these strategies:

. Control population explosion

. Conserve all kinds of natural resources to maintain biodiversity

. Use renewable resources and reduce the use of non-renewable resources

1.5 NATURAL RESOURCES AND THEIR DEPLETION

According to Ramade (1984), a natural resource is defined as a form of energy and! or matter which is essential for the functioning of organisms, populations and ecosystems. In the case of humans, natural resource refers to any form of energy or matter essential for the fulfilment of physiological, socio-economic and cultural needs, both at the individual level and that of the community.

Examples of natural resources are water, air, soil, minerals, coal, forests, crops and wildlife. The basic ecological variables-energy, space, time and diversity are sometimes together called natural resources. These natural resources maintain the ecological balance among themselves. Man is the only organism who has disrupted this delicate balance.

1.5.1 Classification of Natural Resources

There are many different classifications of natural resources. 1. Odum's classification

According to Odum (1971), natural resources can be divided into two categories, viz., renewable and non-renewable resources.

(i) Renewable resources: Resources that can be replenished through rapid natural cycles are known as renewable resources. These resources are able to increase their abundance through reproduction and utilization of simple substances. Examples of renewable resources are plants (crops and forests), and animals who are able to reproduce and maintain life cycles. Some examples of renewable

resources which do not have life cycle, but can be recycled are wood and wood ¬products, pulp products, natural rubber, fibers (e.g., cotton, jute, animal wool, silk and synthetic fibres) and leather. In addition to these resources, water and soil are also classified as renewable resources. Water is no longer referred to as a renewable resource. This is because of its loss in natural replenishment due to global warming, increased deforestation and resulting disturbances in the hydrological cycle. Groundwater is depleting at a fast pace, and a time will soon come when its existence will be in jeopardy.

As a special case, solar energy, though having a finite life, is considered as a renewable resource in as much as solar energy stocks are inexhaustible on the human scale.

(ii) Non-renewable resources: The resources that cannot be replenished through natural processes are known as non-renewable resources. These are available in limited amounts, which cannot be increased. These resources include fossil fuels (petrol, coal, etc.), metals (iron, copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc, etc.), minerals and salts (carbonates, phosphates, nitrates, etc.). Once anon-renewable resource is consumed, it is gone forever. Then we have to find a substitute for it or do without it.

Non-renewable resources can further be divided into two categories-recyclable and non-recyclable.

(a) Recyclable: These are non-renewable resources which can be collected after they are used and can be recycled. These are mainly the non-energy mineral resources which occur in the earth's crust (e.g., ores of aluminium, copper, mercury, etc.) and deposits of fertilizer nutrients (e.g., phosphate stock and potassium and minerals used in their natural state (asbestos, clay, mica, etc.)

(b) Non-recyclable: These are non-renewable resources which cannot be recycled in any way. Examples of these are fossil fuels and uranium, which provide 90 per cent of our energy requirements.

2. Biotic and abiotic resources

Some authors prefer to classify resources into biotic and abiotic resources.

(i) Biotic resources: These are living resources (e.g., forest, agriculture, fish and wild life) that are able to reproduce or replace them.

(ii) Abiotic resources: These are non-living resources (e.g. petrol, land, minerals, etc.) that are not able to replace themselves or do so at such a slow rate that they are not useful to consider them in terms of the human life times.

3. Inexhaustible and exhaustible resources

Natural resources can also be classified as: inexhaustible and exhaustible resources.

(i) Inexhaustible resources: Resources which are not changed or exhausted by man's activities and are abundantly available are said to be inexhaustible. Examples of such resources are solar energy, atomic energy, wind power, power from tides, etc. Most of the renewable resources are classified as inexhaustible. But if not maintained properly, they become extinct; for example, groundwater is renewable only if water continues to percolate in the soil at a rate at which it is removed.

(ii) Exhaustible resources: These resources are limited in nature and they are non-maintainable, e.g., coal, petrol and some minerals. Hence, they come under the non-renewable category.

Even our renewable resources can become non-renewable if we exploit them to such extent that their rate of consumption exceeds their rate of regeneration. For example, if a species is exploited so much that its population size declines below the threshold level, then it is not able to sustain itself and gradually the species becomes endangered or extinct.It is very important to protect and conserve our natural resources and use them in a judicious manner, so that we do not exhaust them. It does not mean that we should stop using most of the natural resources. Rather, we should use the resources in such a way that we always save enough of them for our future generations.

The following are some of the major natural resources: 1. Forest resources

2. Water resources

3. Mineral resources 4. Food resources

5. Energy resources 6. Land resources

1.5.2 Forest Resources

Forest resource is the dense growth of trees, together with other plants, covering a large area of land. Forests are one of the most common natural resources found on earth. Covering earth like a green blanket, these forests not only produce innumerable material goods, but also provide several environmental services which are essential for life. About one-third of the world's land area is forested, which includes closed as well as open forests. Former USSR accounts for about one-fifth of the world's forests,Brazil [or about one-seventh and Canada and USA has 6-7 per cent each. But, it is a matter of concern that almost everywhere the cover of the natural forests has declined lover the years. The greatest loss occurred in tropical Asia, where one-third of the forest resources have been destroyed.

. Uses of forests

I Commercial uses: Forests provide us a large number of commercial goods which include timber, firewood, pulpwood, food items, gums, resins, non-edible oils, rubber,fibres, lac, bamboo canes, fodder, medicine, drugs and many more items, the total of which is estimated to cost more than US $300 billion per year.

Half of the timber that is cut each year is used as fuel for heating and cooking.One-third of the wood harvest is used for building materials as lumber, plywood and hardwood, particle board and chipboard. One-sixth of the wood harvest is converted into pulp and used for paper industry. Many forest lands are used for mining, agriculture, grazing, and recreation and for development of dams.

Ecological uses: While a typical tree produces commercial goods worth about US $590, it provides environmental services worth nearly US $196 to US $250.

The ecological services provided by forests may be summed up as follows: 1. Production of oxygen: Trees produce oxygen by photosynthesis which is so vital for life on this earth. They are rightly called earth's lungs.

2. Reducing global warming: The main greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO) is absorbed by the forests as a raw material for photosynthesis. Thus, forest canopy acts as a sink for CO2, thereby reducing the problem of global warming caused by greenhouse gases such as CO2,

3. Wild life habitat: Forests are the homes of millions of wild animals and plants. About 7 million species are found in the tropical forests alone.

4. Regulation of hydrological cycle: Forested watersheds act like giant sponges, absorbing the rainfall, slowing down the run-off and slowly releasing the water for recharging of the springs. About 50-80 per cent of the moisture in the air above tropical forests comes from their transpiration, which helps. in bringing rains.

5. Soil conservation: Forests bind the soil particles tightly in their roots and prevent soil erosion. They also act as windbreaks.

6. Pollution moderators: Forests can absorb many toxic gases and can help in keeping the air pure and clean. They also absorb noise and thus, help in preventing air and noise pollution.

Overexploitation of forests

Since time immemorial, humans have depended heavily on forests for food, medicine, shelter, wood and fuel. With growing civilizations, the demands for raw materials like timber, pulp, minerals and fuel wood shooted up resulting in large-scale logging, mining, road-building and clearing of forests. Our forests contribute substantially to the national economy. The international timber trade alone is worth over US $40 billion per year. Excessive use of fuel wood and charcoal, expansion of urban, agricultural and industrial areas and overgrazing have together led to overexploitation of our forests leading to their rapid degradation.

Deforestation

The total forest area of the world in 1995 was estimated to be 7000 million hectares, which was reduced to 2890 million hectares in 1995 which further fell down to just 2300 million hectares by 2000. The rate of deforestation is relatively less in temperate countries, but it is alarmingly high in tropical countries, where it is as high as 40-50 percent; at the present rate, it is estimated that in the next sixty years we would lose more than 90 per cent of our tropical forests.

The forested area in India seems to have stabilized since 1982 with about 0.04 per cent decline in deforestation annually between 1982-90. In 1993, Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) estimated that about 1.44 m hectares of land were brought under afforestation during this period leading to stabilization. As per FAO estimates, the deforestation rate per unit population in India is the lowest among the major tropical countries, despite the fact that we have a huge population size and very low per capita forest area (0.075 ha per capita). However, we are still far behind the target of achieving 33 per cent forest cover, as per our National Forest Policy, as we still have only 19.27 per cent of our land area (63.38 m ha) covered by forests based on satellite data (Ministry of Environment and Forests, MoEF, 1998).

Major causes of deforestation

1. Shifting cultivation: There are an estimated 300 million people living as shifting cultivators who practice slash and burn agriculture. In India, we have this practice in the north-east and to some extent in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and MP which contribute to nearly half of the forest clearing annually.

2. Fuel requirements: Increasing demands for fuel wood by the growing population in India alone has shooted up to 300--500 million tonnes in 2001 as compared to just 65 million tonnes during independence, thereby increasing the pressure on forests.

3. Raw materials for industrial use: Wood for making boxes, furniture, railway¬sleepers, plywood, match boxes, pulp for paper industry, etc., have exerted tremendous pressure on forests. Plywood is in great demand for packing tea, while fir tree wood is exploited greatly for packing apples.

4. Development projects: Massive destruction of forests occur for various development projects like hydroelectric projects, big dams, road construction and mining.

5. Growing food needs: In developing countries, this is the main reason for deforestation. To meet the demands of a rapidly growing population, agricultural lands and settlements are created permanently by clearing forests.

6. Overgrazing: The poor in the tropics mainly rely on wood as a source of fuel leading to loss of tree cover and the cleared lands are turned into grazing lands. Overgrazing by cattle leads to further degradation of these lands.

Major consequences of deforestation

Deforestation has far-reaching consequences, which may be detailed as follows:

1. It threatens the existence of many wild life species due to destruction of their natural habitat.

2. Biodiversity is lost and genetic diversity is eroded.

3. Hydrological cycle gets affected, thereby influencing rainfall.

4. Problems of an increase in and soil infertility soil erosion.

5. Deforestation often leads to landslides in hilly areas

6. The effects of global warming may aggravate due to lack of oxygen generation and an increase in the level of carbon dioxide in the air.

Major activities in forests

. Timber extraction: Logging for valuable timber such as teak and mahogany not only involves a few large trees per hectare, but about a dozen more trees since they are strongly interlocked with each other by vines, etc., and construction of roads in forests causes further damage to them.

. Mining: Mining operations for extracting minerals and fossil fuels like coal often involve vast forest areas. Mining from shallow deposits is done by surface mining, while that from deep deposits is done by sub-surface mining. More than 80,000 ha of land in this country is presently under the stress of mining activities. Mining and its associated activities require removal of vegetation along with the underlying soil mantle and overlying rock masses. This results in defacing the topography and destruction of the landscape in the area.
Large-scale deforestation has been reported in Mussorie and Dehradun valley due to indiscriminating mining of various minerals over a length of about 40 kIn. The forested area has declined at an average rate of33 per cent and the increase in non-forest area due to mining activities has resulted in relatively unstable zones, leading to landslides.

Indiscriminate mining in forests of Goa since 1961 has destroyed more than 50,000 ha of forest land. Coal mining in Jharia, Raniganj and Singrauli areas have caused extensive deforestation in Jharkhand. Mining of magnesite and soap-stones have destroyed 14 ha of forest in hill slopes of Khirakot, Kosi valley, Almora. Mining of radioactive minerals in Kerala, Tamilnadu and Karnataka are posing similar threats of deforestation. The rich forests of Western Ghats are also facing the same threat due to mining projects for excavation of copper, chromite, bauxite and magnetite.

. Mining engineering: Mining engineering is a field that involves many of the other engineering disciplines as applied to extracting and processing minerals from a naturally occurring environment.

The need for mineral extraction and production is an essential activity of any technically proficient society. As minerals are produced from within a naturally occurring environment, disturbance of the environment as a result of mineral production is a given. Modem mining engineers must, therefore, be concerned not only with the production and processing of mineral commodities, but also with the mitigation of damage or changes to an environment as a result of that production and processing.

The two primary types of mines are underground mines and open-pit mines. Minerals that exist relatively deep underground (for example, some coal seams, gold and some metalliferous ores) are generally recovered using underground mining methods. Minerals like iron ore, shallow coal seams and bauxite are usually recovered from the surface by open pit mining.

Dams and their effects on forests and people

Big dams and river valley projects have multi-purpose uses and Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru used to refer to these dams and valley projects as 'temples of modern India'. However, these dams are also responsible for the destruction of vast areas of forests. India has more than 1550 large dams, the maximum being in the state of Maharashtra (more than 600), followed by Gujarat (more than 250) and Madhya Pradesh (130). The highest one is Tehri dam, on river Bhagirathi in Uttaranchal and the largest in terms of capacity is Bhakra dam on river Satluj in Himachal Pradesh.

Big dams have been in sharp focus of various environmental groups all over the world, because of several ecological problems including deforestation and socio¬economic problems related to tribal or native people associated with them.

The Silent Valley Hydro-Electric Project was one of the first such projects situated in the tropical rain forest area of West em Ghats, which attracted much concern of the people.

The crusade against the ecological damage and deforestation caused due to Tehri dam was led by Shri Sunderlal Bahaguna, the leader of Chipko Movement. The cause of Sardar Sarovar Dam related issues taken up by the environmental activitist Medha Patkar, joined by Arundhati Roy and Baba Amte.

For building big dams, large-scale devastation of forests takes place which breaks the natural ecological balance of the region. Floods, droughts and landslides occur recurrently in such areas.

Forests are the repositories of invaluable gifts of nature in the form of biodiversity and by destroying them (particularly, the tropical rain forests), we are going to lose these species even before knowing them. These species could have marvelous economic or medicinal value and deforestation results in loss of this storehouse of species which have evolved over millions of years.

1.5.3 Water Resources

Water is an indispensable natural resource on this earth on which all life depends. About 97 per cent of the earth's surface is covered by water and most of the animals and plants have 60-65 per cent water in their body. Water is characterized by certain unique features which make it a marvelous resource. These are:
Water exists as a liquid over a wide range of temperature i.e., from 0 to 100°C. . It has the highest specific heat, due to which it warms up and cools down very slowly without causing fluctuations in temperature, thereby protecting the aquatic life.
It has high latent heat of vapourization. Hence, it takes huge amount of energy

for getting vapourized. That is why it produces a cooling effect as it evaporates.

. It is an excellent solvent for several nutrients. Thus, it can serve as a very good carrier of nutrients, including oxygen, which are essential for life. It can also easily dissolve various pollutants and become a carrier of pathogenic micro¬organIsms.

. Due to high surface tension and cohesion, it can easily rise through great heights, through tree trunks even in the tallest of the trees like Sequoia.

. It has an anamolous expansion behaviour, i.e., as it freezes it expands instead of contracting and thus becomes lighter. It is because of this property that even in extreme cold, lakes freeze only on the surface. Being lighter, ice keeps floating, whereas the water underneath the ice remains at a higher temperature and therefore, can sustain aquatic organisms even in extreme cold.

The water we use keeps on cycling endlessly through the environment. This is known as the hydrological cycle. We have enormous resources of water on earth amounting to 1404 million km3. The water from various moist surfaces evaporates and again falls on the earth in the form of rain or snow and passes through living organisms and ultimately returns to the ocean. Every year, about 1.4 inch thick layer of water evaporates from the oceans, more than 90 per cent of which returns to the oceans through the hydrological cycle. Solar energy drives the water cycle by evaporating it from various bodies, which subsequently return through rainfall or snow. Plants too playa very vital role by absorbing the groundwater from the soil and releasing it into the atmosphere by the process of transpiration.

Global distribution of water resources is quite uneven depending upon several geographic factors. Tropical rain forest areas receive maximum rainfall, while the major world deserts occur in zones of dry, descending air (20-40° Nand S) and receive very little rainfall.

F or building big dams, large-scale devastation of forests takes place which breaks the natural ecological balance of the region. Floods, droughts and landslides occur recurrently in such areas.

Forests are the repositories of invaluable gifts of nature in the form of biodiversity and by destroying them (particularly, the tropical rain forests), we are going to lose these species even before knowing them. These species could have marvelous economic or medicinal value and deforestation results in loss of this storehouse of species which have evolved over millions of years.

1.5.3 Water Resources

Water is an indispensable natural resource on this earth on which all life depends. About 97 per cent of the earth's surface is covered by water and most of the animals and plants have 60-65 per cent water in their body. Water is characterized by certain unique features which make it a marvelous resource. These are:
Water exists as a liquid over a wide range of temperature i.e., from 0 to 100°C. . It has the highest specific heat, due to which it warms up and cools down very slowly without causing fluctuations in temperature, thereby protecting the aquatic life.
It has high latent heat ofvapourization. Hence, it takes huge amount of energy for getting vapourized. That is why it produces a cooling effect as it evaporates.

. It is an excellent solvent for several nutrients. Thus, it can serve as a very good carrier of nutrients, including oxygen, which are essential for life. It can also easily dissolve various pollutants and become a carrier of pathogenic micro¬organIsms.

. Due to high surface tension and cohesion, it can easily rise through great heights, through tree trunks even in the tallest of the trees like Sequoia.

. It has an anamolous expansion behaviour, i.e., as it freezes it expands instead of contracting and thus becomes lighter. It is because of this property that even in extreme cold, lakes freeze only on the surface. Being lighter, ice keeps floating, whereas the water underneath the ice remains at a higher temperature and therefore, can sustain aquatic organisms even in extreme cold.

The water we use keeps on cycling endlessly through the environment. This is known as the hydrological cycle. We have enormous resources of water on earth amounting to 1404 million km3. The water from various moist surfaces evaporates and again falls on the earth in the form of rain or snow and passes through living organisms and ultimately returns to the ocean. Every year, about 1.4 inch thick layer of water evaporates from the oceans, more than 90 per cent of which returns to the oceans through the hydrological cycle. Solar energy drives the water cycle by evaporating it from various bodies, which subsequently return through rainfall or snow. Plants too playa very vital role by absorbing the groundwater from the soil and releasing it into the atmosphere by the process of transpiration.

Global distribution of water resources is quite uneven depending upon several geographic factors. Tropical rain forest areas receive maximum rainfall, while the major world deserts occur in zones of dry, descending air (20--40° N and S) and receive very little rainfall. Water use and overexploitation

Due to its unique properties, water has multiple uses for all living organisms. Water is absolutely essential for life. Most of the life processes take place in water contained in the body. Intake of nutrients, their distribution in the body, regulation of temperature, and removal of wastes are all mediated through water. Water is used by humans in the two following ways:

1. Water withdrawal: This involves taking water from groundwater or surface water resource.

2. Water consumption: Here, the water which is taken up is not returned for reuse.

Water: A precious natural resource

Although water is still abundant on earth, it is very precious. Out of the total water reserves of the world, about 97 per cent is salt water (marine) and only 3 per cent is fresh water. Even this small fraction of fresh water is not available to us completely; most of it is locked up in the polar ice caps and just 0.003 per cent is readily available to us in the form of groundwater and surface water.

Overuse of groundwater for drinking, irrigation and domestic purposes has resulted in rapid depletion of groundwater in various regions leading to lowering of water table and drying of wells. Pollution of many of the groundwater aquifers has resulted in making these wells unfit for consumption.

Rivers and streams have long been used for discharging of wastes. Most of the civilizations have grown and flourished on the banks of rivers, but unfortunately, growth in turn has been responsible for pollution of the rivers.

. Groundwater: About 9.86 per cent of the total fresh water resources is in the form of groundwater and it is about 35-50 times that of surface water supplies. Effects of groundwater usage: (i) Subsidence; (ii) Lowering of water table and (iii) Waterlogging

. Surface water: When the water formed through precipitation (rainfall, snow) does not percolate down into the ground or does not return to the atmosphere through evaporation or transpiration loss, it assumes the form of streams, lakes, ponds, wetlands or artificial reservoirs, known as surface water. The surface water is largely used for irrigation, industrial use, public water supply, navigation, etc. As you know, a country's economy is largely dependent upon its rivers.

The problems arising out of water resources are floods, droughts. Apart from these, there are conflicts over water. Indispensability of water and its unequal distribution has often led to inter-state or international disputes. Issues related to sharing of river water have been largely affecting our farmers and also shaking our governments. Some major water conflicts are: (i) Water conflict in the Middle East¬countries involved are Sudan, Egypt, Turkey-it also affects countries who are water starved, viz., Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Syria, Israel and Jordan; (ii) The Indus Water Treaty-there is dispute between India and Pakistan; (iii) The Cauvery water dispute¬involves two major southern states of India, Tamilnadu and Karnataka. Similarly, the Satluj-Yamuna Link canal dispute also involves two northern states, Punjab and Haryana. Affected states include UP, Rajasthan as well as Delhi.In traditional water management, innovative arrangements ensure equitable distribution of water. The gram sabhas approve these plans publicly. While water disputes between states and nations often resume battle-like situations, our traditional water managers in villages prove to be quite effective.

Big dams: Benefits and problems

Benefits

River valley projects with big dams have usually been considered to playa key role in the developmental process due to their multiple uses. India has the distinction of having the largest number of river valley projects. These dams are often regarded as a symbol of national development. Such projects result in providing employment, raising the standard of living and improving the quality of life. Such projects have tremendous potential for economic upliftment and growth. It can check floods and famines, generate electricity and reduce water and power shortages, provide irrigation water to lower areas, provide drinking water in remote areas and bring about overall development of the region.

Environmental problems

The environmental impact of big dams are also too many, due to which, big dams become an issue of controversy quite often. The impacts can be at the upstream as well as the downstream levels.

Upstream problems: These are as follows:

. Displacement of tribal people

. Loss of forests, flora and fauna

. Changes in fisheries and the spawning grounds

. Siltation and sedimentation of reservoirs

. Loss of non-forest land

. Stagnation and waterlogging near reservoir

. Breeding of vectors and spread of vector-borne diseases . Reservoir Induced Seismicity (RIS) causing earthquakes . Growth of aquatic weeds

. Microclimatic changes

Downstream impacts: These are as follows:

. Waterlogging and salinity due to overirrigation . Micro-climatic changes

. Reduced water flow and silt deposition in rivers . Flash floods

. Salt water intrusion at river mouths

. Loss of land fertility along the river since the sediments carrying nutrients get.

deposited in the reservoir

. Outbreak of vector-borne diseases like malaria

Thus, dams are built to serve the society with multiple uses, but it has several serious side-effects. That it why now there is a shift towards construction of small dams or min-hydel projects.

1.5.4 Mineral Resources

Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solids having definite chemical composition and characteristic physical properties. There are thousands of minerals occurring in different parts ofthe world. However, most of the rocks we see everyday are just composed of few common minerals like quartz, feldspar and biotite. These minerals, in turn, are composed of some elements like silicon, oxygen and iron.

Minerals are generally used for development of industrial plants, generation of energy, construction, equipment and armament for defence, transportation, medical system, communication, jewellery-gold, silver, etc.

Environmental impacts of mineral extraction are devegetation and defacing of landscape, subsidence of land, groundwater contamination, surface water pollution, air pollution, occupational health hazards, etc.

Remedial measures include adoption of eco-friendly technology, microbial leaching technique, restoration of mined areas by re-vegetating them with appropriate plant species, stabilization of the mined lands and gradual restoration of flora.

1.5.5 Food Resources

There are thousands of edible plants and animals the world over, yet only about three dozen types constitute the major food of humans. The main food resources include wheat, rice, maize, potato, barley and oats and about twenty or so common fruits and vegetables, milk, meat, fish and seafood.

World food problems

Every year food problem is killing as many people as were hlled by the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima during World War II. This shows thallhere is a drastic need to increase food production, equitably distribute it and also to control population growth. Although India is the third largest producer of staple crops, an estimated 300 million Indians are still undernourished. India has only half as much land as USA, but it has nearly three times population to feed. Our food problems are directly related to population. Due to overgrazing, the agricultural land gets affected. The manifestations of the problem might be through as follows:

. Land degradation

. Soil erosion

. Loss of useful species

Agriculture also makes an impact on the usage of land as follows:

. Deforestation

. Soil erosion

. Depletion of nutrients

The impact of modem agriculture is as follows:

. Impact related to High Yielding Varieties (HYV).

. Fertilizer-related problems include micronutrient imbalance, nitrite pollution

and eutrophication.

. Pesticide-related problems include creating resistance in pests and producing

new pests, death of non-target organisms, biological magnification.

. Some other problems include waterlogging and increased salinity.

STATEMENT BY THE ADVISORY GROUP ON NUTRITION ON THE WORLD FOOD PROBLEM, HUNGER AND MALNUTRITION

In the two decades since the World Food Conference of 1974, the questions of how much food the world grows and how that food is distributed have rightly remained at the centre of international debate and concern. For most of that time, the main emphasis has been on access to food and on distribution, rather than on supply. We believe that emphasis was correct. It directed discussion to questions of food entitlement, household and individual food security and matters related to the quality and safety of food for human consumption. These concerns have been prominent in international statements, most recently the International Conference on Nutrition in 1992. International policy commitments have in turn been associated with modest increases in resource flows to nutrition and related fields, not just to save lives in famines, but also to help achieve food and nutrition goals in the longer term.

Recently, an alternative set of concerns has re-emerged, which has begun to direct attention back to food supply. Rising population, increasing urbanization, doubts about the sustainability of intensive farming and irrigation systems and an apparent slow-down in the rate of increase of yields of the major food staples, are factors which, have led some observers to argue for a higher priority to be given to agricultural research and to investments designed to increase agricultural productivity and production. The case is said to be strengthened by structural changes in the world economy, including the changes in Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union and the effect of the GATT agreement on world food trade.

Our continuing concern about under nutrition and household food security leads us to conclude that agricultural research and investment will have their greatest impact on reducing hunger if they are planned specifically to take account of the changing geographical and socio-economic characteristics of hunger in the world, and of poor people's perceptions of their malnutrition-related problems. In the immediate future, this will mean increased attention to the production potential of poor people living in resource-poor areas, to the promotion of secure and sustainable livelihoods in Africa, to the needs of female-headed households and semi-urban populations and to measures which will mitigate the appalling effects of severe drought and conflict on food supply, food prices and the command over food by poor people.

Because it is imperative to assure a sustainable and sufficient world food supply, it is necessary to keep under review investments in agricultural research, agriculture and other components affecting supply. We believe that increased investments in these areas are entirely in concert with the massive programmes of action required to achieve the goals set by the International Conference on Nutrition. At the same time, and in a world where aid resources are increasingly scarce, the additional resources required to address issues related to world food supply should not be sought at the expense of those needed to strengthen the effective demand of the deprived for food, health and household care. In our analysis of the world food problem, household access to food remains one of the most urgent food problems for the foreseeable future.

Source: Report on the Twenty-First Session of the Sub-Committee on Nutrition, UNICEF, New York, 7-1 I March 1994.

1.5.6 Energy Resources

Energy consumption of a nation is usually considered as an index of its development. This is because almost all the development activities are directly or indirectly dependent upon energy. There are wide disparities in per capita energy use between the developed and the developing nations.The original form of energy based technology probably was fife, which produced heat and the early man used it for cooking and heating purposes. Wind and hydropower has also been used. Invention of stearn engines replaced the burning of wood by coal and coal was further replaced by oil. Energy resources are primarily divided into two categories, viz. renewable and non-renewable resources. Renewable energy resources must be preferred over the non-renewable resources. This will seek to end the energy crisis which the world is facing today. It is inevitable truth that now there is an urgent need of thinking in terms of alternative sources of energy, which are also termed as non-conventional energy sources. These include solar energy, wind energy, hydropower, tidal energy, ocean thennal energy, geothennal energy, biomass, biogas and biofuels.

The non-renewable energy sources include coal, petroleum, natural gas and nuclear energy.

1.5.7 Land Resources

Land as a resource

Land is a finite and valuable resource upon which we depend for our food, fibre and fuel wood-the basic amenities of life. Soil is also a valuable resource.

Land degradation

Because of increase in population, the demands for arable land for producing food and fuel wood is also increasing. Hence, there is more and more pressure on the limited land resources which are being depleted due to overexploitation. Soil erosion, waterlogging, salinization and contamination of the soil with industrial wastes like fly ash, press mud or heavy metals all cause degradation of land.

. Soil erosion: Soil erosion means wearing away of soil. It is defined as the movement of soil components, especially surface-litter and top soil from one place to another. It results in the loss of fertility.

It is basically of two types, viz, normal erosion or geological erosion and accelerated erosion. The agents that cause such erosions are climatic agents and biotic agents. Wind is also responsible for land erosion through saltation, suspension and surface creep.

In order to prevent soil erosion and conserve the soil, the following conservation practices are employed:

• Conservational till fanning

• Contour fanning

• Terracing

• Strip cropping

• Alley cropping

• Wind breaks or shelterbelts

• 0Waterlogging

. Landslides: Various anthropogenic activities such as hydroelectric projects, large darns, reservoirs, construction of roads and railway lines, construction of buildings and mining are responsible for clearing of large forested areas.

. Desertification: It is a process whereby the productive potential of arid or semiarid lands falls by ten per cent or more. Desertification is characterized by devegetation and loss of vegetal cover, depletion of groundwater, salinization and severe soil erosion. The causes of desertification are deforestation, overgrazing and mining and quarrying.

1.5.8 Equitable Use of Resources for Sustainable Lifestyle

There is a big division in the world in the use of resources, viz., north and south, more developed countries (MDCs) and less developed countries (LDCs), haves and have¬nots.

It is observed that MDCs have only 22 per cent of world's population, but they use 88 per cent of natural resources, 73 per cent of energy and command 85 per cent of income; in turn, they contribute a big proportion to its pollution. On the other hand, LDCs have very low or moderate industrial growth and have 78 per cent of the world's population. They use only 12 per cent of natural resources, 27 per cent of energy and have only 15 per cent of global income. The rich have gone richer and the poor have become poorer. There is a huge gap between them. This is not sustainable growth.

The solution to this problem is to have better equitable distribution of resources and wealth. A global consensus has to be reached for balanced distribution. There are two major causes of unsustainability. These are:

I. Overpopulation in poor countries

2. Overconsumption of resources by rich countries

The rich countries will have to lower their consumption levels and the minimum needs of the poor must be satisfied by providing them resources. The need of the hour is fairer sharing of resources between the rich and poor, which will bring about sustainable development or all.

Within the concept of sustainable development, industrial ecology plays a significant role in order to create a balance between industrial development and preservation of natural resources. It refers to the adoption of such industrial processes, technology, equipment and raw material where the products can be recycled after their life cycle is complete or can be put to alternative use or a byproduct can be made out of it. This not only reduces the pressure on raw materials and compensates them for producing afresh, it also reduces the costing impact. Advanced technology also reduces wastage and is more energy efficient.

1.6 INDUSTRIAL AND URBAN POPULATION

It was estimated that by 2008, the world would reach its milestone; more than half its human population-3.3 billion people will be living in urban areas. It is also estimated that by 2030, this population will rise to almost 8 to 8.5 billion, and most of them will be poor. Thus, it is important to make cautious decisions as the future of this growing population and the future of developing countries will depend on the decisions currently made to prepare for this growth.

Over the 20th century, the urban population of the world increased from 220 million to 2.8 billion. The following decades will encounter an unprecedented scale of urban growth in the developing world. It would be specifically noticeable in Asia and Africa as there the urban population will double between the years 2000 and 2030.
This implies that the entire span of history is going to be duplicated in one single generation in the accumulated urban growth of these two regions.

Urbanization means the increase in the urban share of the total population. It is unavoidable; however, it can also be positive. Presently, it is threatening to see the slum growth, social disruption and concentration of poverty in the cities. In spite of the negative effects of urbanization, significant economic growth cannot be achieved without it by any country which is in the industrial age.

Cities also represent the environmental damage caused due to modern civilization; yet policymakers and experts continuously recognize the cities' potential value to long-term sustainability. Cities, apart from creating problems to the environment, also contain the solution to it. Also, the advantages of urbanization dominate the disadvantages; if only the possibilities to exploit it could be learnt.

In 1994, the Programme of Action of the International Conference on Population and Development called on governments to 'respond to the need of all citizens, including urban squatters, for personal safety, basic infrastructure and services, to erifuinate health and social problems. . . .' I Recently, the United Nations Millennium Declaration specified in Target 11 the ambition of achieving' a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers'2, which drew attention to the growing significance of urban poverty.
UN-Habitat's Third World Urban Forum, as well as its State of the World's

Cities 2006/7, successfully focused world interest on the deteriorating environmental and social conditions of urban localities.3 The globalization process has also attracted focus to the human cost and to the productive potential of cities. However, the great impact and scale of future urbanization has not entered the mind of the public.So far, the main focus of attention has been on immediate concerns, problems, like ways of accommodating the poor and improving the conditions of living, employment generation, reducing ecological footprint of cities, improving governance, and ways of administering increasingly complex urban systems.

They are important concerns, but when compared to the problems raised by approaching future growth of the urban population, their intensity lessen. Till now, as the challenges came up, the civil society organizations and policymakers have reacted to them. This is not enough any longer; it is necessary to have a pre-emptive approach if in developing countries urbanization is to help solve environmental as well as social problems, instead of making them devastatingly worse.

Thus, it is important to look beyond the current problems, no matter how urgent, real and poignant they are. Yet, it is also a call to action.

Mega-cities get most of the attention; however, conditions in smaller urban areas call for even greater consideration. Opposed to the general belief, the major urban population growth is most likely to be in smaller tClwns and cities, where the possibilities of planning and implementation are very weak. Nevertheless, the process of decentralizing the powers of the government all over the world implies the transfer of more responsibilities on them. As the population in smaller cities increases, their thin planning and managerial capacities will get under a lot of stress. It will be necessary to find new ways to equip them to plan ahead for expansion, to use their resources sustainably and to deliver essential services.

Poor people will make up a large part of future urban growth; this is unavoidable unless timely measures are taken. Rather than migration, the reason behind increase in urban growth is natural increase (lesser death rate and higher birth rate). No matter the reason behind the increase in urban population, it includes a large number of poor people. Choosing to ignore this basic reality will make it impossible either to plan for massive and inevitable city growth or to use urban dynamics to help relieve poverty.

Once the civil society and the policymakers understand and accept the social and demographic composition of urban growth, some basic approaches and initiatives suggest themselves. These may have an impact on the poor people's fate and on the viability of the cities themselves. Civil society, along with national and urban governments, may take steps which will make a difference for the economic, environmental and social living conditions of a majority of the world's population. This can be done with the help of international organizations.

There are three policy initiatives that are available in this connection. Primarily, respecting the poor people's rights to the city is a minimum prerequisite for an urban future. Mostly, policymakers discourage rural-urban migration as a way of preventing urban growth. They do that by undertaking measures, such as evicting squatters and denying them services. Such attempts of preventing migration are wrong; they violate the rights of the people. They are also counter-productive. There are options that respect human rights that can be undertaken in case the urban growth rates are too high according to the policymakers. Advances in social development, .such as making education available universally, promoting gender equity and equality and meeting reproductive health needs, are important for their own sake. However, they will also enable women in avoiding unwanted pregnancies and reduce the main factor in the growth of urban populations-natural increase.

Second, cities need a longer-term and broader vision of the use of urban space to promote sustainability and reduce poverty. This includes concern with the needs of the land of the poor. The basic essentials for a poor family is an adequate piece of land with accessibility to water, power, transport and sewage, on which they can construct their homes and improve their lives. A new and proactive approach is required to provide all this. Planning for such spatial and infrastructure requirements, keeping in mind the multiple roles and needs of a poor woman, will greatly in1prove the welfare of poor families. Such a people-centric development knits together the social fabric and encourages economic growth that includes the poor. Similarly, purposeful management of space in advance of needs is required to protect the environment and managing ecosystem services in future urban expansion requires.

The urban footprint stretches beyond the boundaries of the city. Also, environmental conditions largely affect and influence cities. Proactive policies for sustainability will be important as well in view of climate change and the considerable proportion of urban concentrations at or near sea level.

Third, population institutions and specialists may and must playa key role in supporting social movements, community organizations, governments and the international community to improve the form and nature of future urban expansion, and hence enhance its power to reduce poverty and promote environmental sustainability. At such a time, a concerted international effort necessary for clarifying policy options and providing information and analyses that will support strategies to improve the urban future.

1.7 GLOBAL WARMING

Troposphere, the lower-most layer of the atmosphere, traps heat by natural processes due to the presence of certain gases. This effect is called greenhouse effect, as it is similar to the warming effect observed in the horticultural greenhouse made of glass. .The amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere depends mostly upon the concentration of heat trapping or greenhouse gases and the length of time they stay in the atmosphere. The major green house gases are carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, nitrous oxide, and water vapour.

The average global temperature is 15°e. In the absence of greenhouse gases, this temperature would have been 18°e. Therefore, greenhouse effect contributes to a temperature rise to the tune of33°e.

Heat trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere keeps the planet warm enough to allow us and other species to exist. The two predominant greenhouse gases are water vapour that is controlled by the hydrological cycle, and carbon dioxide that is controlled mostly by the global carbon cycle. While the levels of water vapour in the troposphere have relatively remained constant, the levels of carbon dioxide have increased. Other gases whose levels have increased due to human activities are methane and nitrous oxide. Deforestation has further resulted in elevated levels of carbon dioxide due to non-removal of carbon dioxide by plants through photosynthesis.

Warming or cooling by more than 2°e over the past few decades may prove to be disastrous for various ecosystems on the earth, including humans as it would alter the conditions faster than some species could adapt to or migrate from. Some areas will become inhabitable because of droughts or floods following rise in the average sea level.

Greenhouse gases

The phenomenon that worries the environmental scientists is that due to anthropogenic activities, there is an increase in the concentration of the greenhouse gases in the air that absorbs infrared light containing heat and results in the re-radiation of much of the outgoing thermal infrared energy, thereby increasing the average surface temperature beyond 15°C. The phenomenon is referred to as the enhanced greenhouse effect to distinguish its effect from the one that has been operating naturally for millennia.

The greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, chlorofluorocarbons, methane and nitrous oxide. These are the greenhouse gases present in the troposphere which result in an increase in the temperature of air and earth.
Impacts of enhanced greenhouse effect

The enhanced greenhouse effect will not only cause global warming, but will also affect various other climatic and natural processes. They are as follows:

1. Global temperature increase: It is estimated that the earth's mean temperature will rise between 1.5 to 5.5 °c by 2050, if inputs of greenhouse gases continues to rise at the present rate. Even at the lower value, earth would be warmer than it has been for the past 10,000 years.

2. Rise in sea level: With the increase in global temperature, sea water will expand. Heating will melt the polar ice sheets and glaciers resulting in further rise in sea level. Current models indicate that an increase in the average atmospheric temperature 3degree C would raise the average global sea level by 0.2-1.5 metres over the next 50-100 years.

One metre rise in sea level will inundate low-lying areas of cities like Shanghai, Cairo, Bangkok, Sydney, Hamburg and Venice, as well as agricultural lowlands and deltas in Egypt, Bangladesh, India, China. This will affect rice productivity. This will also disturb many commercially important spawning grounds, and would probably increase the frequency of storm damage to lagoons, estuaries and coral reefs.

In India, the Lakshadweep Islands with a maximum height of 4 m above the sea level is vulnerable. Some of the cities like Mumbai may be saved by heavy investment on embankments to prevent inundation.Life of millions of people who have build homes in the deltas of Ganges, the Nile, the Mekong, the Yangtze and the Mississippi rivers will be affected, by the sea level rise.

3. Effects on human health: Global warming will lead to changes in the rainfall pattern in many areas, thereby affecting the distribution of vector-borne diseases like malaria, filariasis and elephantiasis.

Areas which are presently free from diseases like malaria may become the breeding ground for the vectors of such diseases. The areas likely to be affected in this manner are Ethiopia, Kenya and Indonesia. Warmer temperature and more water stagnation will favour breeding of mosquitoes, snails and some insects, which are the vectors of such diseases. Higher temperature and humidity will increase/aggravate respiratory and skin diseases.

4. Effects on agriculture: There are different views regarding the effect of global warming on agriculture. It may show positive or negative effects on various types of crops in different regions of the world. Tropical and subtropical regions will be more affected since the average temperature in these regions is already on the higher side. Even a rise of 2°C may be quite harmful to crops. Soil moisture will decrease and evapo-transpiration will increase, which may drastically affect wheat and maize production.

Increase in temperature and humidity will increase pest growth like the growth of vectors for various diseases. Pests will adapt to such changes better than the crops.

To cope with the changing situation, drought resistant, heat resistant and pest resistant varieties of crops have to be developed.

Measures to check global warming

To slow down enhanced global warming, the following steps will be important:

1. Cut down the current rate of use of CFCs and fossil fuel

2. Use energy more efficiently

3. Shift to renewable energy resources

4. Increase in nuclear power plants for electricity production

5. Shift from coal to natural gas

6. Trap and use methane as a fuel

7. Adopt sustainable agriculture

8. Stabilize population growth

9. Efficiently remove carbon dioxide from smoke stacks

10. Plant more trees

11. Remove atmospheric carbon dioxide by utilizing photosynthetic algae

Acid rain

Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen originating from industrial operations and fossil fuel combustion are the major sources of acid-forming gases. Acid-forming gases are oxidized over several days by which time they travel several thousand kilometres. In the atmosphere, these gases are ultimately converted into sulphuric and nitric acids. Hydrogen chloride emission forms hydrochloric acid. These acids cause acidic rain. Acid rain is only one component of acidic deposition. Acidic decomposition is the total wet acidic deposition (acid rain) and dry deposition. Rainwater is turned acidic when its pH falls below 5.6. In fact, clean or natural ~ rainwater has a pH of 5.6 at 200e because of formation of carbonic acid due to the \ dissolution of CO2 in water.

In the absence of rain, dry deposition of acid may occur. Acid forming gases like oxides of sulphur and nitrogen and acid aerosols get deposited on the surface of water bodies, vegetation, soil and other materials. On moist surfaces or in liquids, these acid forming gases can dissolve and form acids similar to that formed in acid ram.

Effects of acid rain

Acid rain causes a number of harmful effects below pH 5.1. The effects are visible even at pH less than 5.5.

1. It causes deterioration of buildings, especially made of marble, e.g., monuments like Taj Mahal. Crystals of calcium and magnesium sulphate are formed as a result of corrosion caused by acid rain.

2. It damages stone statues. Priceless stone statues in Greece and Italy have been partially dissolved by acid rain.

3. It damages metals and car finishes.

4. Aquatic life especially fish are badly affected by lake acidification.

5. Aquatic animals suffer from toxicity of metals such as aluminium, mercury,manganese, zinc and lead which leak from the surrounding rocks due to acid ram.

6. It results in reproductive failure, and killing of fish.

7. It damages foliage and weakens trees.

8. It makes trees more susceptible to stresses like cold temperature, drought, etc.

Many insects and fungi are more tolerant to acidic conditions, and hence, they can attack the susceptible trees and cause diseases.

Control of acid rain

1. Emission ofS02 and N02 from industries and power plants should be reduced by using pollution control equipment.

2. Liming of lakes and soils should be done to correct the adverse effects of acid ram.

3. A coating of protective layer of inert polymer should be given in the interior of water pipes

UNIT 2

INDUSTRIAL ACTIVITIES AND ENVIRONMENT

INTRODUCTION

Industrial activities play an important role in the economic well-being of any country contributing to sustainable growth. However, industrial activities also have a significant impact on the environment. It leads to the emission of key atmospheric pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, dust and volatile organic compounds. In this unit, you will learn about the impact of industrial and business activities on the environment, such as industrial pollution and impact of industrial waste on the local environment. You will be familiarized with the role of competition and consumerism, and the issues of environment management for business. The unit will be discussing about natural resources and energy management and ways to conserve natural resources and energy. The unit will elaborate upon the necessity of optimally using the fossil fuels, and finally the unit will discuss the use of non-conventional energy resources.

2.2 IMPACT OF INDUSTRIAL AND BUSINESS ACTIVITIES ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Any business effects the environment. It causes air, water and noise pollution. All these types of pollutions are discussed in detail in the following section.

2.2.1 Industrial Pollution

1. Air Pollution

The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 defines 'air pollutants' and with reference to them defines air pollution. An 'air pollutant' means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance (including noise) present in the atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or other living creatures or plants or property or environment. Air pollution means the presence of any air pollutant in the atmosphere. In this connection, the definition of' emission' is also relevant. 'Emission' is any solid, liquid or gaseous substance coming out of any chimney, duct or any other outlet. There are 'standards' and legislation that exist for emissions.

Approximately, 95 per cent of the earth's air is present the lower levels, specially in the troposphere. In the natural state, air contains 78 per cent nitrogen, 21 per cent oxygen, 0.4 per cent carbon dioxide plus small amounts of other gases and water vapour. The remaining 0.5 per cent of the planet air occurs in the upper levels, the stratosphere together with gases like ozone.

Air pollutants can be primary or secondary. Primary pollutants are carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide (all formed from the combustion of fossil fuels), CFC and particulate matter. Secondary pollutants are acid rain and ozone. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide combine with water in the atmosphere and react with sunlight forming acid droplets. These acid droplets constitute acid rain.

(i) Sources of air pollution

The sources of air pollution are both natural and man-made (anthropogenic). They

are as follows:

(a) Natural sources: The natural sources of air pollution are volcanic eruptions, forest fires, sea salt sprays, biological decay, photochemical oxidation, extraterrestrial bodies, pollen grains of flowers, etc. Radioactive minerals present in the earth's crust are the sources of radioactivity in the atmosphere.

(b) Man-made sources: Man-made sources include thermal power plants, industrial units, vehicular emissions, burning of fossil fuel, agricultural activities, etc. Thermal power plants have become the major sources for generating electricity in India. The main pollutants emitted are fly ash and SO 2' Metallurgical plants also consume coal and produce similar pollutants. Fertilizer plants,smelters, textile mills, chemical industries, paper and pulp mills are other sources of air pollution.

Automobile exhaust is another major source of air pollution.

(c) Indoor air pollution: The most important indoor air pollutant is a gas named radon. This is responsible for a large number of lung cancer deaths each year. These could be emitted ftom building materials like bricks, concrete and tiles. Many houses in the underdeveloped countries including India use fuels like coal, dung-cakes, wood and kerosene in their kitchens. Complete combustion of fuel produces carbon dioxide which may be toxic; however, incomplete combustion produces the toxic gas, carbon monoxide.

I (ii) Effects of air pollution

1. Effects on human health: Years of exposure to air pollutants including cigarette smoke adversely affect the natural defenses of the body and can result in lung cancer, asthma, chronic bronchitis, etc. Many other pollutants may have toxic metals that can cause mutations, reproductive problems or even cancer.

2. Effects on plants: Air pollutants affect plants by entering the cells through the stomata. The damage results in the death of the plant.

3. Effects on aquatic life: Air pollutants mixing up with rain can cause high acidity in ftesh water lakes, which affects aquatic life, especially fish. Some of the fteshwater lakes have had the complete fish population wiped out due to a heavy dose of air pollutants.

4. Effects on materials: Due to their corrosiveness, particulates can cause damage to exposed surfaces.

(ill) Control of air pollution

Air pollution can be minimized by the following methods:

( a) Setting up of industries after proper environmental impact assessment studies.

(b) Using low sulphur coal in industries.

(c) Removing sulphur from coal (by washing or with the help of bacteria).

(d) Removing NOx (nitrogen oxide) during the combustion process.

(e) Removing particulate from stack exhaust gases by employing electrostatic

precipitators, bag-house filters, cyclone separators, scrubbers, etc.

(f) Vehicular pollution can be checked by regular tune-up of engines, converters, by engine modification to have fuel effective (lean) mixtures to reduce CO and hydrocarbon emissions and slow and cooler burning of fuels to reduce NOx emission (Honda Technology).

(g) Using mass transport system, bicycles, etc. (h) Shifting to less polluting fuels (hydrogen gas).

(i) Using non-conventional sources of energy. G) Using biological filters and bio-scrubbers.

(k) Planting more trees.

(1) Through the Air Pollution Control Act.

2. Noise pollution

We hear various types of sounds everyday. Sound is a form of mechanical energy emitted from a vibrating source. A type of sound may be pleasant to someone and at the same time unpleasant to others. Unpleasant and unwanted sound is called noise.

The CPCB (Central Pollution Control Board) has recommended permissible noise levels for different locations.

(i) Effects of noise

(a) Interferes with man's communication: In a noisy area, communication is

severely affected.

(b) Hearing damage: Noise can cause temporary or permanent hearing loss. It depends on the intensity and duration of sound level. Auditory sensitivity is reduced with noise levels over 90 dB in the mid-high frequency, for more than a few minutes.

(c) Physiological and psychological changes: Continuous exposure to noise affects the functioning of various systems of the body. It may result in hypertension, insomnia (sleeplessness), gastro-intestinal and digestive disorders, etc.

(ii) Steps to control noise pollution

(a) Reduction in the sources of noise.

(b) Noise-making machines should be kept in containers with sound absorbing media. The noise path will be interrupted and will not reach the workers.

(c) Proper oiling will reduce the noise from machinery.

(d) Use of sound absorbing silencers. Silencers can reduce noise by absorbing sound. For this purpose, various types of fibrous materials can be used.

(e) Planting more trees that have broad leaves.

(f) Law and legislation can ensure that sound production is minimized at various social functions. Unnecessary blowing of horn should be restricted, especially in vehicle-congested areas.

3. Water pollution

Water pollution can be defined as an alteration in physical, chemical or biological characteristics of water, making it unsuitable for the designated use in its natural state.

(i) Sources of water pollution

Water is an essential commodity for survival. We need water for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing, irrigation and for all industrial operations. Water has the property

to dissolve many substances in it. Therefore, it can get polluted easily. Pollution of water can be caused by point sources or non-point sources. Major point sources of water pollution are industries, power plants, underground coal mines, offshore oil wells, etc.

(ii) Groundwater pollution and surface water pollution (a) Groundwater pollution

Groundwater forms about 6.2 per cent of the total water available on planet earth, and is about thirty times more than surface water, i.e., streams, lakes and estuaries. Septic tanks, industry (textile, chemical, tanneries), deep-well injection, mining, etc., are mainly responsible for groundwater pollution which is irreversible. Groundwater pollution with arsenic, fluoride and nitrate pose serious health hazards.

(b) Surface water pollution

The major sources of surface water pollution are as follows:

(i) Sewage

(ii) Industrial effluents

(iii) Synthetic detergents

(iv) Agrochemicals

(v) Oil

(vi) Waste heat

(vii) Effects of water pollution

The following are some of the important effects of various types of water pollutants:

(i) Oxygen-demanding wastes

(ii) Nitrogen and phosphorus compounds (nutrients)

(iii) Pathogens

(iv) Toxic compounds

(v) Waterborne diseases

(vi) Reduction in dissolved oxygen in water resources

Pesticides in drinking water ultimately reach humans and are known to have caused various health problems. DDT, aldrin, dieldrin, etc., have therefore been banned. Recently, in Andhra Pradesh, people suffered from various abnormalities due to the consumption of endosulphan contaminated cashew nuts.

(iv) Control of water pollution

It is easy to reduce water pollution from point sources by legislation. However, due to absence of any defined strategies it becomes difficult to prevent water pollution from non-point sources. The following points may help to reduce water pollution from non-point sources.

(a) Judicious use of agrochemicals, such as pesticides and fertilizers which will reduce their surface run-off and leaching. Using agrochemicals on sloped land should be avoided.

(b) Use of nitrogen-fixing plants to supplement the use of fertilizers.

(c) Adopting integrated pest management to reduce reliance on pesticides.

(d) Prevent run-off of manure. Divert such run-offs to basin for settlement. The nutrient-rich water can be used as fertilizer in the fields.

(e) Separate drainage of sewage and rain water should be provided.

(f) Plantation of trees would reduce pollution and will also prevent soil erosion. (g) Industrial affluents to be allowed only after treatment.

2.2.2 Impact of Industrial Waste on the Local Environment

Materials which are mainly generated through anthropogenic activities and are discarded as useless or unwanted are called wastes. The waste may be solid, liquid and gaseous wastes. On the basis of the source of generation, they are classified as domestic waste, commercial wastes, institutional waste, agricultural waste, biomedical waste and industrial waste. The waste generated from the industrial sectors are known as industrial wastes. The industrial wastes are organic or inorganic in nature. Some of the wastes are biodegradable or non-biodegradable. The wastes are also hazardous waste and non-hazardous waste.

These wastes are generally discharged from chemical industries, refineries, I textile industries, drug industries, fertilize plants, etc. All the wastes that are generated from industries have a greater effect on all living organisms, and especially the victims are the organisms in the local environment.

Wastes polluting air

The major air pollutants are carbon oxides (CO and CO z), sulphur oxides (SO Z' SO 3)' nitrogen oxides (NO, NOz' NzO). Particulate matter are soot, smoke, very fine particles, (such as lead, manganese, asbestor, arsenic, copper, zinc, etc.), peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN), ozone (°3)' etc.

The industrial wastes polluting the air mainly come ftom the burning of fossil fuels in industries. The industries that produce various products, such as textile industry which produces cotton dust, nitrogen oxides, cWorine, smoke, sulphur dioxide; fertilizer plants produce oxides of sulphur, particulate matter, ammonia nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbon, etc. steel plants produce carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, fluorine, particulate matter, etc.

The following are the effects of the major air pollutants:

1. Carbon monoxide combines with blood haemoglobin and forms stable

carboxyhaemoglobin, disturbing oxygen transportation and might cause

death.

2. Oxides of nitrogen causes respiratory irritation, impairment of lung

defence, bronchitis, loss of appetite, etc.

3. Sulphur dioxide causes suffocation, respiratory irritation, asthma and

chronic bronchitis.

4. Particulate matter causes respiratory diseases, neural disorder and depending on the nature of element it might lead to cancer. If lead is present in the particulate matter and inhaled it might lead to mental retardation in children.

5. Ground level °3 causes headache, suffocation and in external cases can be fatal.

6. Peroxyacyl nitrate (PAN) are produced nearer to the industry producing NOz' volatile organic compound. This might be formed through some mechanism and might effect local people severely by causing eye irritation, sore throat, respiratory irritation, headache, etc.

7. When a huge amount of sulphur oxide particulate matter is formed then sulphurous smog might also be formed, which might lead to chronic bronchitis and acute respiratory problems.

Wastes polluting water

The major sources of water pollution is industrial discharges, especially from manufacturing plants. These industries discharge organics, such as toxic metals, pesticides, nitrate salts, etc. Groundwater pollution can occur when industrial waste is discharged into pits, ponds or lagoons, thereby enabling wastes to percolate to the water table. The oxygen demanding wastes are introduced from paper industry, textile industry, food processing plants, toxic metals, such as Hg, Pb, Cd, Cr, Ni, etc., from the electroplating industry. The groundwater pollution stems from disposal of wastes on or into the ground. The wastes, mainly in the rainy season, percolates into the ground and contaminate it. The typical pollutant sources are industrial wastewater impoundments, sanitary landfills, storage piles which are improperly constructed. The pollutants in water are limitless, some of them can be biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) wastes, antimony, cadmium, chromium, lead, cobalt, mercury, etc. Generally, many industries, such as steel and paper industries are situated on the banks of rivers, as they require huge amounts of water in their operations. Such industries dump their wastes which contains acids, alkalis, dyes into the rivers. Many of these materials are poisonous for living organisms and causes serious water pollution problems.

Some of the effects of various pollutants are as follows:

1. Oxygen demanding wastes: With the increase of oxygen demanding wastes, the dissolved oxygen in water drops, threatening aquatic life. It loses its recreational quality and helps in the growth of pathogens making it completely unusable.

2. Nutrients: The industry, especially the fertilizer industry, discharges a lot of nitrogen oxides which goes to water bodies through acid rain, and if larger concentration accumulates and local people use this water, their children might be effected with blue baby syndrome.

3. Thermal pollution: Steel industry, nuclear reactors, electric power plants use huge amount of water for cooling processes. The water discharged is very hot and causes thermal pollution. The high temperature depletes oxygen, thereby affecting fish and aquatic organisms. The local people who depend on these water resources become affected. Again the cooling water produces wastewater with salts.

4. Heavy metals, Cd, Hg, Pb, As, etc.: Heavy metals have great effect on human health as they may lead to kindly damage, disorder of liver, brain, genetic modification, skin cancer, kidney etc.

Wastes polluting land

Industrial wastes polluting land are generally wastes such as office and cafeteria wastes, I packing wastes, tannery wastes, dying wastes, food processing wastes, plastic wastes, I metal scraps, pesticides, etc., from the respective industrial establishments. These . wastes represent a health hazard due to their content in toxic substances, such as heavy metals, lead and cadmium, pesticides, solvents and used oil. The pollutants I discharged into the soil can alter the chemical and biological properties of the soil.

I The toxic elements, such as lead, mercury, cadmium, etc., pose a detrimental health threat, as they get into the food chain. The coal-based thermal power plants generate fly ash which gets deposited in the soil and causes pollution by changing the characteristics of the soil. The fly ash so formed 'carve' the leaves of plants and when the fly ash is inhaled, it causes serious health problems. An ideal example is the Kolaghat thermal power plant in Midnapore, where people are suffering from serious health conditions. Discarded plastics also affect water resources in the local environment.

Wastes creating noise pollution

Noise is an unwanted sound energy and is considered as pollutant when it exceeds some limits. Noise pollution has been growing steadily mainly due to industrialization. Noise pollution has tremendous effect on the local environment. It disturbs and distracts. If the local public is exposed to it for a sufficient time, it causes physiological effects that may lead to deafness. Noise pollution may lead to cardiovascular problems like heart diseases and with blood pressure.

2.2.3 Role of Competition and Consumerism

Due to rapid industrialization, the comparative gap between the rich and the poor is widening. Those with jobs and those without have equally experienced the reality of the rat race of daily life. They are willing to spend it for their comforts and those who lack money are resorting to anti-social activities resulting in increase in crimes, especially financial crimes like roberies, embezzlement and misappropriations. It is the impact of the continuous increase in salaries and wages every year, that the habits of spending have undergone a change. In such a society, those who have jobs and a reasonable salary or wage, are now not worried about the money in their pockets. Such people are willing to buy articles beyond their buying capacity. There is an increasing tendency of resorting to avail loans from financial institutions, banks. The saving habits of the previous generations are getting converted into spending habits.

2.3 ISSUES IN ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT FOR BUSINESS

What exactly are environmental issues and how do these specifically affect people? For business, environmental issues include deterioration of land quality, accumulation of waste, water pollution, air pollution, etc. There are ways to overcome these environmental issues and they are discussed as follows:

. Global warming: Increased emission of carbon dioxide and other hot gases into the environment is the perceived culprit in the climate change and consequent disasters. Climate change can not only result in such direct disasters as hurricanes and long winters, but also affect agriculture and food availability.

. Loss of biodiversity: It is biodiversity in the form of numerous organisms that makes life on this earth sustainable. Organisms make the soil fit for cultivation, destroy pests and maintain climate, among other things. Killing these organisms by destroying forests and other such practices can make life on the planet very different and difficult.

. Water and air pollution: Persistent organic pollutants and toxic materials, such as pesticides and industrial wastes can accumulate in living tissues disrupting endocrine systems, suppressing immunity functions and causing reproductive and developmental changes. Also, the pollutants can travel long distances crossing international borders through air, water and migratory species.

. Land degradation: Unsustainable felling of trees and exploitation of watercan lead to desertification of presently habitable regions while destruction of mangroves and other practices can lead to erosion of coastal areas.. Chemical waste: In a chemical industry, the environmental issues are chemical spills. A spill can injure employees or make them sick. It can lead to fires and other property damage. It can become a source of bad press and jeopardize your relationship with the community. A chemical spill can easily find a waterway or groundwater, which can be disastrous for the environment in the long run. In order to avoid such accidents, it is necessary to be prepared for spills, and train the employees.

It is thus obvious that life on earth will be a very different proposal in the future if current human practices continue unchecked. The situation will be aggravated when the non-renewable energy sources, such as oil, get exhausted without any sustainable energy sources replacing them.

Environment protection initiatives

Governments and leaders have begun to recognize how serious the situation is and many initiatives are being taken. However, political compulsions and inadequate resources and projects are hampering sufficiently forceful action.

The initiatives include the following:

. Creating awareness among the public is a major focus area. Results have also begun to appear with public resistance against many practices that lead to environment damage, such as cutting down trees and the preference for pesticide- free food.

. Government regulations have made businesses take specific actions and avoid others to protect the environment and public health. Trees cut from forests need to be compensated by replanting, angling is restricted and pollution control is a major focus area.

. Research efforts are being intensified to tap renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind power and biomass energy. Biomass energy involves using waste materials like wood chips, straw, sewage sludge and bio waste to generate energy. Unlike bio fuels, biomass does not compete for resources that can be used for food.

. Reputed businesses are developing alternatives that use less energy. For example, Siemens claims on their website that their combined-cycle power plants use hot waste-gases (that were formerly released into the environment) to generate steam for downstream turbines, reducing fuel needed to generate power by as much as 60 per cent.

. There are several standards and reforms to keep a check on the businesses. ISO 14001, published by International Standards Organization, is a standard that seeks to focus the attention of industrial units on environmental issues. Accounting reforms seek to account for environmental costs of business operations, in addition to financial costs.

Businesses that act with environmental responsibility are even beginning to see improvements in their bottom lines.

Environmental management is more about managing the interactions of human societies with the environment rather than managing the environment. Human activities have led to considerable degradation of the environment and the situation is threatening to become dangerous to life on earth. Persistent toxic substances that do not degrade for months to years are already leading to poorer quality of life for people, while climate change is leading to many disasters.

2.4 NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENERGY MANAGEMENT

Generation of power needs resources. Resources available on earth are diminishing in nature. These are depleting at a fast face with time as use is increasing exponentially. There are some renewable resources, e.g., solar power, wind power and geothermal power. Technology is also being developed to harness these renewable resources to generate power. The capital investment requirement is very high as compared to normally available resources. It can be quoted here that with the available technology, we could hardly generate 5 per cent of total power generation as on date.

Let us see the other aspect of life, where one cannot understand all technical reasons or benefits of the whole world until he himself realizes some benefits for his action or efforts. In this competitive world, cost competitiveness is essential for survival of every individual. To establish any work/motive or task, energy in one or other form is an essential component.

Thus, the need to conserve energy, particularly in industry and commerce is strongly felt as the energy cost takes up substantial share in the overall cost structure of the operation. Therefore, it is called management of energy or in other words management of resources or energy conservation.

Managing energy and natural resources

Energy management does not happen by chance. It cannot be done single-handedly. It needs coordinated effort by a team of energy-conscious people with a milestone to be established. Very concerted efforts in a planned manner are required to established energy management. Strategy needs to be established based on the 'target of energy conservation' .

Energy management techniques

The following are the energy management techniques:

(i) Self knowledge and awareness among the masses

(ii) Re-engineering and evaluation (iii) Technology up gradations

2.4.1 Conservation of Natural Resources

Different natural resources like forests, water, soil, food, mineral and energy resources play a vital role in the development of a nation. With our small individual efforts we can help in conserving our natural resources to a large extent. The following are some of the ways:

Conservation of water

1. Do not keep water taps running while brushing, shaving, washing or bathing. 2. Fill water in washing machines only up to the level required.

3. Install water-saving toilets that use not more than six liters per flush

4. Check for water leaks in pipes and toilets and repair them promptly.

5. Reuse the soapy water of washing from clothes for gardening, driveways, etc.

6. Water the plants and the lawns in the evening when evaporation losses are minimum. Never water the plants in mid-day.

7. Install a system to capture rain water.

Conservation of energy

1. Turn off lights, fans and other appliances, when not in use.

2. Obtain as much heat as possible from natural sources. Dry the clothes in sun

instead of using dryers.

3. Use solar cooker for cooking, which will make the food more nutritious and

will save your LPG expenses.

4. Build your house with provision for sunspace, which will keep your house warmer and will provide more light. .

5. Drive less, make fewer trips and use public transportations whenever possible.Share a car-pool if possible.

6. Control the use of air conditioners.

7. Recycle and reuse glass, metals and paper.

8. Use bicycle or just walk down small distances instead of using an automobile.

Protection of soil

1. Grow different types of ornamental plants, herbs and trees in your garden.

Grow grass in the open areas that will bind the soil and prevent its erosion.

2. Make compost from your kitchen waste and use it for your kitchen-garden.

3. Do not irrigate the plants using a strong flow of water as it would wash off the soil.

4. Better use sprinkling irrigation.

Promotion of sustainable agriculture

1. Do not waste food; take as much as you can eat. 2. Reduce the use of pesticides.

3. Fertilize your crops with organic fertilizers.

4. Use drip irrigation.

5. Eat local and seasonal vegetables.

6. Control pests.

2.4.2 Conservation of Energy

It is well known that energy saving could be obtained to the extent of 15 per cent, without both an additional input and with proper modification addition of equipments, for generation of power, especially boilers of about 33 per cent efficiency. Using fluid bed techniques, it is possible to save energy to the extent 000 per cent. The organized sector, especially industries, transport, etc., could take lead in this direction. The other sectors, especially agriculture, could very well make use of alternate energy sources including biogas, wind energy, and photovoltaic which is considered extremely suitable for remote areas including hills because of the distribution problems that occurs with conventional energys

Any additional generation of power, especially thermal power, will lead to further environmental degradation. It is, therefore, obvious that conservation of energy will also reduce environmental, degradation. Hence, any effort on energy conservation will automatically contribute to control of environmental pollution as well as eco restoration. Energy conservation techniques are briefly described. .

Power shortage

The rise in demand of power against supply may hamper the growth of industry and agriculture. At the end of the sixth plan, a gap of 5,444 MW between demand and supply, may become as wide as 10,000 MW during seventh plan. In the first year of the seventh plan (1985-86) the addition to the utilities was 4072 MW including 2,830 MW in the thermal sector. The power position in the country worsened in 1985-86 with a 7.9 per cent shortfall in power supply. In 1984-85, the power deficit was around 6.7 per cent. The expected annual growth rate in the demand for the electricity in the seventh plan is 12.2 per cent.
There has been a substantial increase in cost per megawatt of power. This has gone up from ~ 24 lakhs in the first plan to ~ 159 lakhs at the end of the sixth plan. Transmission and distribution losses were as high as 21 per cent in 1985-86, while in Japan and in the Federal Republic of Germany, the loss was about 5.3 per cent and 4.7 per cent, respectively.
As the thermal and hydel energies are costly and are also location based, so the gap, in demand and supply can be reduced to some extent by non-conventional energy sources, such as solar, wind, biomass, etc.
Energy derived through other sources is being researched and worked upon, but we are not in a position to tap other sources which are not very much efficient. Efficient use of energy, therefore, has to be given more importance, wastage has to be minimized and maximum utilization of capacity is the need of the hour. It is obvious that there is no alternative to conservation of energy. Thus, any innovation contributing to the saving of energy should be welcomed and effort in this area should be encouraged.

Energy conservation in steel and allied industries

The iron and steel industry in India, involving high temperature processes, consumes as much energy as 9-10 million cal per tonne of crude steel, which is about 58 per cent more than that in USA and is about 38 per cent more than the lowest energy consumed in the world. Energy consumption costs in an integrated steel plant account for as much as 25 per cent of total production costs. Indian steel industry alone consumes about 50 per cent energy consumed by the industrial sector.

Global scenario

To explain the reasons for high energy consumption in Indian steel industry, a shop ¬wise comparison with that of a developed country may give better insight. The following observations were made from a comparison between energy usage in Indian steel plant and steel plant in Japan during 1980:

(i) Specific energy consumption in the Indian steel plant is twice that of the Japanese steel plant. (ii) In both the cases, about 72 per cent of the energy consumed is up to the iron making stage. (iii) The fuel utilization efficiency in the steel-making and reheat furnaces, is poor in the Indian steel plants. In these areas, the specific energy consumption is twice that in the Japanese steel plant.

Action areas for energy conservation

In the operation of steel industries, maximum attention should be given to the optimum utilization of energy by use of appropriate technologies. The following areas may be easily observed where conservation efforts should be focussed:
(i) The consumption of petroleum fuels contributes to about 13 per cent of the total fuel bill of the steel plants. So, reduction in consumption of petroleum products is really advissable at this stage. (ii) A high priority should be given to the energy conservation efforts in the iron making areas where about 72 per cent of the total energy is consumed. The energy conservation measures can be categorized as follows:

. Equipment improvements

. operational improvements

. Modernization

(1) Equipment improvements

This category of measures may give quite high return with marginal investment The following areas may be recognized easily:

(i) Insulation of cold blast main

(ii) Minimizing leakages of hot blast

(iii) Improvement in combustion systems

(iv) Insulation of furnaces by ceramic fibre may reduce the heat loss to an extent of 5.7 per cent.

(v) Modification of water cooled spide in the reheating furnaces.

(2) Operational improvements

This category does not require any capital investment that have to be followed on a continuous routine basis. Some areas of improving operational aspects are:

(i) To minimize leakage of oil, air, steam, etc.

(ii) To analyse fuel gases regularly

(iii) To maintain proper quality and size of input raw materials.

(3) Modernization

A huge amount of investment is required for this purpose. Leisure is an essential requirement for efficient plant and failure to modernize the plant at the right time leads to steep deterioration in the plant output.

Energy conservation in textile industry

It is estimated that the textile industry consisting of a little over 700 mills consumes an energy worth ~ 490.00 crores per year (1982 figures). This, in other word, means that energy alone forms 8-10 per cent of the total production cost of the textile produced by them. Effective conservation measures can save us as much as 10 per cent of the energy cost. In the past, the power and utility cost of the textile sector was only 3-4 per cent of the total cost structure. The hike in coal and other fuel prices has led to this cost going up to 8-10 per cent. Obviously, our efforts should be effected towards a more economical use of our fuels. The more instant energy conservation measures specifically suggested for some industries are as follows:

(i) Use of premium efficiency electric motors and correct motor and load sizing.

(ii) Regular inspection of transformers for distribution lines, prevention of leakages, prevention in abnormal rise of temperature and working transformers over 85 per cent of the rated load.

(iii) Use of static condensers to improve power factor.

(iv) (iv) Roof level reduction to reduce lighting load.

(v) Optimum speed of spindle to produce most economic yam.

(vi) Proper motor maintenance to prevent loose cotton and dust accumulation and bum out of motors.

(vii) In the heat energy side, proper boiler operation and maintenance, good insulation of steam lines, feed water recycling and waste heat recovery can be economically carried out.

(viii) Solar energy in textile industry can be used for the following: (a) Steam generation

(b) Preheating of motor

(c) Air cooling and humidification

(d) Cooking and dish washing in the canteen

(e) Drying of cloth

Energy conservation in the railways

Energy accounts for 22-23 per cent of the operating expenses of the railways. Over the years, the railways have taken systematic steps towards reduction in energy consumption and this is manifest in the changeover from steam to diesel and now electric traction. The railways consume about 7.25 million tonnes of coal annually,

1550 million litres of HSD oil and about 3250 million kwh of electricity for traction alone. Any measure which promotes more efficient use of energy in the railways would greatly add to measures of reducing in operating costs in railways and to be a trendsetter in energy utilization in the rest of the economy. The study of the following aspects may contribute somewhat in the area of energy saving:

1. Better tracks: The consumption of energy is directly related with the surface on which the movement of the body takes place. A road vehicle gives less millage per unit of fuel on a rough road. The same phenomenon occurs in railway systems too, and hence, the design, construction and maintenance of the track are important factors to be taken care of, if energy has to be conserved.

2. Fuel economy in diesel engines: The primary aim of the diesel engine designers has been to achieve fuel economy. Considerable economy in fuel consumption has been achieved using assembly components of improved designs and optimizipg energy performance parameters based on these changes. However, some fuel economy can be achieved by minor modifications and adjustments of the engines.

Energy conservation in other areas

Domestic consumers can be motivated to curtail energy consumption in many household goods. These include fan regulators, lighting fluorescent chokes, pressure cookers, etc. Introduction of higher technology will help in conservation and minimize wastage. Advancement in electronics, in general, and semiconductor technology, in

particular, has opened avenues for improving energy efficiency in almost all sectors of industry. For transmission of high voltage electrical energy, the use of high power semiconductors can contribute to better cost effectiveness.

Use of electronic controls

One area for energy conservation is the use of electronic controls for a wide variety of electrical motor operated systems, where speed is required to be maintained at a significantly lower and then full rated speed over reasonably prolonged periods. If an electronic regulator is used in place of resistance type regulators in fans, about 12 watt per fan can be saved easily. Thus, 6 MW for 5.5 million fans, per year, can be saved. Power semiconductors will also be effective for light dimmers, room coolers, sodium lamps, radios, TV s and other equipment.

Considering the existing dismal power scenario, a concerted campaign needs to be mounted on conservation and efficient use of energy in industries. Industry needs motivation to discard inefficient use of power. Appropriate legislation containing a package of incentives would i..'1duce manufactures of equipment, using energy, to switch over to modem technology, including electronics.

2.5 OPTIMAL USE OF FOSSIL FUELS

Fuels formed by natural resources, for example, anaerobic decomposition of dead and buried organisms are known as fossil fuels. Organisms and the resulting fossil fuels are usually millions of years old. There are many types of fossil fuels, such as petroleum, natural gas, coal; natural gas contains high percentages of carbon.
Fossil fuels range from volatile materials with low carbon-hydrogen ratios like methane, to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure carbon, like anthracite coal.Fossil fuels are known as non-renewable resources of energy as their formation takes millions of years, and reserves are getting depleted at a much faster rate than new ones are being made. The use and production of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. Therefore, it is important to optimally use these fossil fuels as their rate of formation is very slow and are thus non-renewable. Using every part or almost every part of a natural resource in the best possible way is called optimal utilization of a natural resource. A global movement towards the generation of renewable energy is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs.

Burning fossil fuels causes major adverse effects. It produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon dioxide per year, and it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or 3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide). Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average surface temperature of the earth to rise in response, which climate scientists agree will cause major adverse effects.

In the USA, more than 90 per cent of greenhouse gas emissions come from the combustion of fossil fuels. Combustion of fossil fuels also produces other air pollutants, like sulphur oxides, nitrogen dioxide, volatile organic compounds and heavy metals.

Combustion of fossil fuels generates sulfuric, carbonic, and nitric acids, which fall to earth as acid rain, impacting both the built environment and the natural areas. Monuments and sculptures made from marble and limestone are particularly vulnerable, as the acids dissolve calcium carbonate.Fossil fuels also contain radioactive materials, mainly uranium and thorium, which are released into the atmosphere. In 2000, about 12,000 tonnes of thorium and 5,000 tonnes of uranium were released worldwide from burning coal. However, this radioactivity from coal burning is minuscule at each source and has not shown to have any adverse effect on human physiology.

To optimally use a fossil fuel, all its different parts must also be utilized. For example, burning coal also generates large amounts of bottom ash and fly ash. These materials are used in a wide variety of applications. Fly ash is one of the residues generated in the combustion of coal. Fly ash is generally captured from the chimneys of coal-fired power plants, and is one of two types of ash that jointly are known as coal ash; the other, bottom ash, is removed from the bottom of coal furnaces. In the past, fly ash was generally released into the atmosphere, but pollution control equipment mandated in recent decades now require that it be captured prior to release. In the USA, fly ash is generally stored at coal power plants or placed in landfills. About 43 per cent is recycled, often used to supplement Portland cement in concrete production. The reuse of fly ash as an engineering material primarily stems from its pozzolanic nature, spherical shape, and relative uniformity. Fly ash recycling, in descending frequency, includes usage in the following:

. Embankments and structural fill

. Road subbase

. Waste stabilization and solidifIcation

. Portland cement and grout

. Flowable fill

. Aggregate

. Raw feed for cement clinkers

. Mine reclamation

. Stabilization of soft soils

. Mineral filler in asphaltic concrete

. Other applications include cellular concrete, geopolymers, roofing tiles,

paints, metal castings, and filler in wood and plastic products

In a similar way, the left over petroleum products are also used; for example, tar, a left over of petroleum extraction, is used in construction of roads. In a similar way, all the parts of petroleum are used in some way or the other as it is a non¬renewable source of energy.

In economic terms, pollution from fossil fuels is regarded as a negative externality. Taxation is considered one way to make societal costs explicit, in order to internalize the cost of pollution. This aims to make fossil fuels more expensive, thereby reducing their use and the amount of pollution associated with them, along with raising the funds necessary to counteract these factors.

2.6 USES OF NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES

Non-conventional energy means energy acquired ftom sources other than the traditional sources of energy. Non-conventional energy is also called renewable energy, because these energy sources can be replenished as compared to the traditional sources of energy. The latter are based on fossil fuel and would get exhausted in the future. The most popular form of non-conventional energy is the solar energy. Some of the other sources are wave, wind energy via wind turbines, hydroelectricity or solar energy gathered by plants, such as alcohol fuels, etc. Further, the gravitational force of the moon can be used through tidal power stations, and the heat trapped in the centre of the earth is used through geothermal energy systems. Other examples of non¬ conventional source of energy are bio fuel and fuel cells. .

However, some of these non-conventional or renewable sources of energy are unreliable and therefore cannot be relied upon to give a constant supply of energy. Despite the inherent troubles with the technology of renewable energy, mounting environmental demand has forced its development at a faster pace. The World Wind Energy Association (WWEA) expects 160 GW of the capacity to be installed by 2010, which will be a growth rate of more than 20 per cent per year.

2.6.1 Solar Energy

Solar radiation has become an attractive energy source because of its many features: its global distribution, its high thermodynamic quality, its inexhaustible energy supply, and its pollution ftee nature. On the other hand, some characteristics have made its use limited on a large scale. The daily and seasonal variations in available solar energy may require the use of energy storage facilities. The dispersed nature of the resource itself affects the economics of power generation. The average amount of solar energy, striking an area, including direct and diffuse radiation, can vary from 2 kwh per square metre to as much as 7-8 kwhlm2 in sunny regions. The average energy available (in kwh/m2 year) to a tracking surface is 0.5 to 0.7 times the number of sunshine hours. As a worldwide average, 1.500 kwhlm2 year is available on a tracking surface and 1,150 kwh/m2/year on a horizontal surface. Solar radiation is currently being used to generate electricity via two technologies-solar thermal and photovoltaics.

Solar thermal electric conversion

There are a number of possible systems for solar thermal electric conversion: parabolic trough, parabolic dish, satellite, total systems (heat and electricity), control receiver and solar ponds. Based upon researches to date, the most viable method for large¬ scale conversion is the central receiver. In this method, sunlight, falling on flat two axes tracking mirrors, is focused on a central boiler. The absorbed energy produces
superheated steam or hot gases to drive a Rankine-Steam cycle. Projected sizes of solar thermal energy conversion systems range to 150 MW.

Technical limitations

Solar thermal energy conversion is a concentrating system. It must rely solely on the direct insolation component, the highly collimated solar radiation. This stands in contrast to photovoltaic and other flat plate collectors that can use both diffuse and direct insolation. Thus, solar thermal energy conversion can be considered to be very much successful in an arid region where there is less diffusion by clouds, dust, pollution, etc.

Land requirements, although significant, are not a limiting factor, particularly in the light of land availability in hot arid areas where solar thermal energy conversion is most likely. A thumb rule is that a square mile will supply 100 MW at a 40 per cent load factor.

Solar energy in the form of heat

Energy in the form of heat is one of the main energy requirements in domestic, agricultural, industrial and commercial sectors. In the domestic sector, thermal energy is needed for cooking, heating water and drying purposes. The agricultural sector needs thermal energy for growing of plants under controlled environment, using green houses. Drying of agricultural products is required for their preservation.

In the industrial sector, there is a need for hot water, heated air, gases and liquids and low temperature steam. The commercial sector, viz. hotels, hospitals, offices needs thermal energy for variety of applications. Generally, these requirements are being met by burning of coal, oil, wood, animal dung and use of electricity. Many of these conventional energy sources can be replaced by solar energy. Due to its geographical position, India is blessed with plenty of sunshine, with an annual average insolation, varying from 4 to 7 kwh per m2 per day with 250-300 clear sunny days, per year. The entire temperature range required by the applications can be covered with the available technologies of conversion of solar energy to thermal energy. The available technologies can be categorized as given in the Table 2.1.

Table 2.1 Conversion of Solar Energy

Temperature Range Applications

II 1. Low thermal energy(below 100°C)    refrigeration, space heating, desalination, etc.

2. Medium grade thermal energy (100 to 300°C)

3. High grade thermal energy (above 300°C)

Water heating, air heating and drying,       Cooking, steam generation, drying, power generation, etc.

Power generation.

2.6.2 Wind Energy

Due to the comparatively long-term experience in the use of wind plants, future contributions and cost of this source are more certain than those of other renewable sources.In projecting the significance of wind energy, as an energy source, account must be taken of the highly localized quality of the wind resource. Although the resource is large, site selection is a critical and limiting factor in forecasting potential.

The annual-average hourly-mean wind-speed is, generally, used to reveal the wind energy potential for a particular location. In India, at most places, this falls in the range 9-17 km/h. The rated wind speed at which full rated power is generated is normally higher than the annual average-speed. Therefore, in order to maximize energy availability during a year, a rated speed in the range of20-25 km/h would correspond to 9-17 km/h annual average-speed.
The number of hours during any year, when wind speed would equal or exceed this rated wind speed at a given place, would probably be between 1000-2000 hours, though not equitably distributed throughout the year. During the period March to August, the winds are unifonnly strong over the whole of Indian peninsula except the eastern peninsular coast. The months of May, June and July account for nearly half of the annual energy availability. Wind speed during, November to March, are weaker. Therefore, unless the wind energy availability and the demand are matched, a wind mill designed to operate in windy months would deliver only fraction of the output in the less windy months or if it is designed to operate in a less windy months, it would utilize only a fraction of energy available during the windy season.

It has been estimated that in windy areas (18-20 km/h), the potential for wind power generation is about 5 MW /sq km and, in less windy areas (15-18 km/h), about 2 MW/sq km. Such wind conditions, according to the present infonnation, are available in, atleast, 5 per cent of the land area of the country. On the basis of available wind information, it is estimated that there exists a potential of the order of20,000 MW in the country for wind generated electricity.

However, wind and solar energy cannot be a replacement for the presently available commercial sources of energy, in tenns of the total power delivered. They can play an important role as a decentralized resource, in regions where commercial power is not available and where good wind and sunshine prevail, particularly in the development of integrated energy systems in many rural areas in India.

2.6.3 Hydel Energy

Hydropower is one of the most attractive sources of renewable energy. In the realization of harnessing hydro energy both, major and mini/micro hydro sources, are to be developed. It has been realized uniformly that large hydro projects involve several environments and social consequences. Hence, there is increasing interest in small hydro projects. The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) has classified the small hydro plants into three classes. They are as follows:

(i) Small hydro plants: The plants with individual unit ranging between 1 MW and 5 MW, and the total installed capacity is less than 15 MW.

(ii) Mini hydro plants: The total installed capacity is less than 2 MW with individual unit capacity ranging between 100 KW -1 MW.

(iii) Micro hydro plants: Those plants which are of less than 100 KW installed capacity with individual capacity ranging between a few KW -100 K W.

In Indian conditions, small hydro plants can be broadly categorized into two types as follows:

(a) Small hydroelectric project sites in the hilly regions where small streams are available.

(b) Small hydro plants especially in the plains where the canal falls, utilizing regulated discharges for irrigation and water supply to towns.

The total number of small hydroelectric schemes in operation at the end of 1988 was 89 with an installed capacity of more than 171 MW. The on-going small hydro schemes numbered 87 with an aggregate installed capacity of 198 MW. About 255 small hydro projects were under investigation in various parts of the country.
The north and north eastern areas of India are hilly and mountainous. These areas are sparsely populated and accessible with difficulty. Extension of grid lines from plains is very difficult and expensive. Setting up of diesel-based stations is also difficult and uneconomical because of high cost of transportation. However, these areas are blessed with a number of hilly streams which can be utilized for generation of electricity through microhydel projects. The energy can be distributed to the surrounding villages through isolated grids.

2.6.4 Tidal Energy

Energy is very closely linked to man's economic growth and development. The energy I

need of the world is increasing at a high rate. The main source of energy used is non. renewable energy resources, such as coal, oil, natural gas, etc. Energy utilization, specially the fossil fuels has great environmental consequences. The environmental impact of energy production and utilization is closely related to the release of green, house gases, such as CO2, N 2 0 and air pollutants, such as N x 0 y' SOx, hydrocarbons,. etc.Energy and environment, therefore, pass major scientific and technological . challenges and has lead to the search of alternative eco- friendly energy sources. One I I of the alternatives could be tidal energy. A lot of energy is inherent in the twice-a-day rise and fall of the tides and is related to the local geographical conditions. The carboni dioxide is 'taken up' by the annual production of crops, such as soybeans and then! released when vegetable oil-based biodiesel is combusted. This makes biodiesel thel best technology currently available for heavy-duty diesel applications to reduce atmospheric carbon. The advantages ofbiodiesel are as follows: '.

. Biodiesel is safer for people to breathe. A research conducted in the US: shows that biodiesel emissions have decreased the levels of all targetl polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and nitrated PAH (nPAH)1 compounds, as compared to the petroleum diesel exhaust. PAR and nPAHI compounds have been identified as the potential cancer causing compounds. I All these reductions are due to the fact the biodiesel fuel contains no aromatic! compounds.

. Biodiesel helps preserve and protect the natural resources. For every' 1 unit of energy needed to produce biodiesel, 3.24 units of energy are gained. This is the highest energy balance of any fuel. Due to this high energy. I balance and since it is domestically produced, the use of biodiesel can greatly! contribute to domestic energy security.

. Biodiesel is non-toxic and biodegradable. Tests sponsored by the US Department of Agriculture confirm that biodiesel is ten times less toxic than table salt and biodegrades as fast as dextrose (a test sugar).

The cost of biodiesel, however, is the main hurdle to commercialization of the product. The used cooking oils are used as feedstocks, adaptation of continuous transesterification process and the recovery of high quality glycerol from biodiesel! by-product (glycerol) are the crucial options to be taken into account to lower the price of biodiesel.

There are four primary ways to make biodiesel. These are: (i) direct use anal blending; (ii) micro emulsions; (iii) thermal cracking (pyrolysis); and (iv) transesterification. The most commonly used method is transesterification of vegetable oils and arrimal fats. Transesterification is the process of reacting a triglyceride molecule with an excess of alcohol in the presence of a catalyst (KOH, NaOH, NaOCN3, etc.) to produce glycerine and fatty esters.

Biodiesel can also be made from other feedstocks, such as other vegetable oils, com oil, canola (an edible variety of rapeseed) oil, cottonseed oil, mustard oil, palm oil, etc. Restaurant waste oils, such as frying oils; animal fats, such as beef tallow or pork lard; float grease (from wastewater treatment plants); trap grease (from restaurant grease traps) are some of the other sources of biodiesel.

Biofuel development in India centres mainly on the cultivation and processing ofJatropha plant seeds that are very rich in oil (40 per cent). Jatropha oil has been used in India for several decades as biodiesel to cater to the diesel fuel requirements of remote rural and forest communities. However, biodiesel in India is virtually a non-starter. A number of reasons are responsible for this.

The first reason is the non-availability of vegetable oil. India is still unable to satisfy its huge demand for vegetable oil or cooking oil and has to import 55 per cent of the volume needed. India is the largest importer of edible oil in the world. Edible oil imports amount to more than 50 per cent of the total agricultural imports of India. Most of the different types of edible oils used currently are stable (do not get rancid). These do not decompose much on storage. Hence, these are preferred for the transesterification process. On the other hand, the various types of non-edible oils are not that stable, and need a lot of pre-treatment adding to the cost of manufacture of biodiesel. If these are used as lamp oil, even oil with 50 per cent free fatty acids can be used. Collection of non-edible oil seeds is a manual operation and requires a large manpower, which is challenging, and for a large biodiese1 plant it is a logistical nightmare. The price of seeds of Jatropha is currently very high because most of it is used for plantation purposes. At this price, the manufacturing cost of biodiesel is three times the pump price of petroleum diesel.

The second reason is the government's policies. The government of India started Biofuel Mission in 2003, but it announced its Biofuel Policy on 11 September 2008. The union cabinet in its meeting gave its approval for the National Policy on Biofue1 prepared by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, and also approved for setting up of an empowered National Biofuel Coordination Committee, headed by the Prime Minister of India and a Biofuel Steering Committee headed by the Cabinet Secretary.
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy has been given the responsibility for the National Policy on Biofuels and overall coordination by the Prime Minister under the,Allocation of Business Rules. A proposal on 'National Policy on Biofuels and it~ Implementation' was prepared after wide scale consultations and inter-ministerial deliberations. The draft policy was considered by a group of ministers (GoMs) under the chairmanship of Shri Sharad Pawar, Union Minister of Agriculture, Food and Public Distribution. After considering the suggestions of the Planning Commission and other members, the GoMs recommended the National Biofuel Policy to the cabinet

The salient features of the National Biofuel Policy are as follows:

. An indicative target of 20 per cent by 2017 for the blending of biofuels¬ bioethanol and biodiesel has been proposed.

. Biodiesel production will be taken up from non-edible oil seeds in wastd' degraded/marginal lands.

. The focus would be on indigenous production of biodiesel feedstock and import of free fatty acid (FF A) based, such as oil, palm, etc., would not be permitted. .

. Biodiesel plantations on community/government/forest wastelands would be encouraged while plantation in fertile irrigated lands would not be encouraged.

. Minimum support price (MSP) with the provision of periodic revision for biodiesel oil seeds would be announced to provide fair price to the growers, The details about the MSP mechanism, enshrined in the National Biofuel Policy, would be worked out carefully, subsequently, and considered by the Biofuel Steering Committee.

. Minimum purchase price (MPP) for the purchase of bio-ethanol by Oil marketing companies (OMCs) would be based on the actual cost oil production and import price of bio-ethanol. In case of biodiesel, the MPP should be linked to the prevailing retail diesel price.

. The National Biofuel Policy envisages that bio-fuels, namely biodiesel and bio-ethanol, may be brought under the ambit of 'declared goods' by the, Government to ensure unrestricted movement of biofuels within and outside the states.

. It is also stated in the Policy that no taxes and duties should be levied on biodiesel.

. The National Biofuel Coordination Committee to be chaired by the hon'ble prime minister.

Apart for these policies, the government holds large tracts of land as forest lands and revenue lands. In some states, such as Chattisgarh, these are leased to state-owned oil company, e.g., Indian Oil Corporation (IOC). These create problem~ for Jatropha plantation as large patches of land are required for such plantation.

At the same time, biodiesel production has the potential to address some of the most important development challenges in India. First, the production of biodiesel

holds large potentials for the development of the agricultural sector and rural areas of India. It can create additional income and employment and-depending on the organization of production-strengthen participation patterns and empowerment of the rural population. Second, oil-bearing trees may help to restore degraded land and to increase Indian forest cover. Third, it can diminish India's dependency on oil imports and reduce CO2 emissions substantially .

UNIT – 3

Industrial Processes and their effects on Environment

3.1 CONCERN FOR ENVIRONMENT IN: PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT, PRODUCTION PROCESS, PACKAGING, DISTRIBUTION, MARKETING

The magnitude of environmental problems has expanded considerably over the past several decades, from pollution and solid waste issues to deforestation, soil erosion and other forms of natural resource depletion and degradation, to global concern such as climate change and the thinning of the ozone layer. It has been suggested that there is a need for a new economic paradigm in which environmental issues have a more important role than they have at present. It is important to understand this shift since not only governmental actions, but also the individual acts of several decision-makers in the industrial sector will, in large part, determine whether or not society is capable of taking effective actions in environmental matters.

The current shift is from the traditional managerial thinking to environment¬ related management, with higher emphasis on environmental aspects. Environmental preservation has become a central value, alongside traditional economic values like profit and growth, directing and strategy making. The paradigm shift is reflected in the concept of the product, as well as attitudes towards the industry, competitive advantage, relationship between the product and the environment, economy and nature, responsibility for the environment, and the relationship between environmental policy and management.

3.1.1 Product Development

Development of products in an environment-friendly way is a major concern of many people these days. Where to get started is amongst the most difficult steps in the initiation of a green product development strategy. The green knowledge base for product development is widely distributed and not readily available within the organization, in the design or process teams. The supply base has varying degrees of experience with green methods and processes. Several alternatives are available to bring this knowledge into the company. Grooming the individual(s) within an organization, hiring experienced green professionals, or engaging consulting services are some of the alternatives that help in advancing the knowledge. Each alternative has its own benefits and drawbacks.

Internal green competency development takes time, and the choice of the individual( s) is very important. There are two elements to the green competency, which are as follows:

(i) The knowledge of the regulations-be they local, national or international.

(ii) The knowledge of the process steps, the chemistry, and analysis tools required to evaluate the material properties for hazardous materials and their proposed green replacements.

Larger companies need individuals that would have two sets of skills, viz., knowledge about rules and regulations and coordination with the appropriate agencies and material and chemical knowledge. Any individual with the former set of skills could be in the process, regulatory or quality departments; while the latter could be a highly educated expert in materials as well as complex analysis methods. Usually, it is preferred to have one individual with both the qualities. However, this dual-skilled . individual will be dependent on outside experts and their points of view when forming his or her opinions on green alternatives.

I 3.1.2 Production Process

As more and more people migrate from rural areas to cities to find work in developing countries, the plight of the urban poor is more visible, and the environmental and I health problems associated with these population shifts become increasingly intractable. Greater industrial growth is key to improving the economic well-being of urban populations. The challenge of achieving the desired growth in industrial production is even more difficult, due to the need to reduce pollution from industry and other municipal sources because of the adverse effects on public health and the environment.¬

Industrial efficiency can be improved by using several models based on the principles of cleaner production. They postulate that in order to achieve success in improving industrial efficiency and environmental performance, it is necessary to consider the institutional framework, the influences from the economic conditions and market trends, the availability of technical assistance and information and the existence of a supportive government framework.

Traditionally, international aid agencies have taken a bifurcated approach to environmental protection in developing countries. Their primary concern has been on protecting natural resources and conserving biodiversity. These' green' projects have received the majority of development resources designated for environmental projects, while 'brown' investments-those that focus on improving environmental conditions in urban areas, reducing industrial pollution-have claimed a much smaller share of aid resources.

It has been seen that small investments in 'brown' projects yield significant benefits, especially for the protection of downstream ecosystem.

Cleaner production

Cleaner production is the continuous application of an integrated, preventive environmental strategy to processes and products to reduce risks to humans and the environment. F or production processes, cleaner production includes conserving raw materials, water and energy, eliminating toxic raw materials, and reducing the quantity and toxicity of all emissions and wastes before they leave a process. For products, the strategy focuses on reducing impacts along the entire life cycle of the product, from raw material extraction to the ultimate disposal of the product. Organizations achieve cleaner production by applying know-how, improving technology, and changing attitudes.

3.1.3 Packaging

While designing a product and its packaging, it is important to ensure that there is minimum waste of materials (if possible, no waste at all). Following are the reasons

why waste should be kept to the minimum:

. When a company manufactures a design, the materials used are often expensive. Any wasted material means that the company is also wasting money. In a competitive world, waste must be minimized.

. If there is little waste of material, then less material is needed to manufacture a design. This helps conserve the environment;-for example, if a manufacturer of card packaging keeps waste to a minimum then less trees need to be cut down to provide the card.

. Energy is required to drive machinery in order to manufacture products. If waste material is produced, it means that energy has been wasted in cutting, shaping or removing this useless material.

. Recycle as much waste material as possible and use it again. This saves money and protects the environment.

Product manufacturers are the ultimate source responsible for making packaging changes. The combination 0 regulatory and economic demands forced many manufacturers in a variety of industries to re-evaluate and implement environment¬ friendly packaging for their products. One industry sector that has many environmentalists concerned is the electronics industry. What happeflS'il0t,only to the packaging but to the products themselves after consumer usage? For example, consumers are disposing of older computer models at a significant rate. What kind of hazards does this pose for the environment? Fortunately, electronics manufacturers are conscious of these issues and are modifying their packaging materials and products accordingly.

For many years, computers were packaged in expanded polystyrene or polystyrene foam. This material is declining as a packaging choice because it does not decompose. As an alternative, air envelopes or air bubble packs ranging from small bubble wraps to air bubbles the size of softballs are now being used. One major computer manufacturer has gone so far as to package its printer cartridges in molded fiber or pulp inserts. When consumers purchase the cartridge, they remove the old cartridge, place it into the box with the inserts that the new cartridge came in, apply a piece of tape over the top, and UPS will pick it up for recycling. It is these types of initiatives by manufacturers that will improve the environmental impact of recycled content.

Packaging does play a vital role in the supply chain for the selection of the raw materials to its final disposal. As domestic supply management organizations reach out globally, they will be subjected and expected to adhere to strict packaging regulations and fees that may be avoided if they consider the same packaging requirements in their own supply chain. Packaging can serve many purposes for organizations. However, these purposes should serve not only the organization and its end-users but the environment as well.

Environment

Environmentalism has played a large role for several decades and continues to produce new things. For example, the current move towards bottled water is producing 1.5 million tons of plastic waste each year. In many areas of the country, the most conspicuous kind of trash on the street is plastic water bottles. This is going to create a huge problem if the industry does not start tapping into the environmental issue this will cause.

The different levels of mine waste heaps are not only becoming a chronic nuisance for the society but are also affecting terrain, aquifers, and flowing water. While society finally tries to deal with the situation; the waste heaps will continue to grow larger. Something will have to be done to clean them up.

Globalization

Globalization is quite a different trend. As American firms globalize, what they are going to find is that in much of the world there is a tremendous desire and demand for reusable packaging: not necessarily to reuse it for packaging, but to reuse it for domestic or household use. Supply management organizations moving into Europe will find severe stresses by law on the nature of packaging. There is also going to be the opportunity to look at local products and how they might be differently packaged.

Another factor that is important with globalization is symbology-the significance of color, names, numbers, etc; for example, in China, the number four is a bad number and the number eight is a good number. In different parts of the world, orange, yellow, and green are positive or extremely negative colors. As businesses globalize, they must accommodate their packaging to reflect the culture.Distribution

Environmental issues are being considered while making business decisions, and it is gaining popularity for many reasons. In that light, the following tips for helping companies achieve both environmental and operational benefits by focusing on 'green' initiatives in their distribution centers (DCs), are being offered:

(i) Maximize efficiency of conveying and handling processes: Integrating material handling and warehouse management systems enables manufacturers and distributors to move and touch products fewer times and reduce forklift usage. In addition to reducing handling costs, these advances help to reduce energy consumption and reduce emissions.

(ii) Increase flow-through: The use of advanced warehouse management systems also enables companies to streamline warehouse processes to achieve higher levels of cross docking, which, in turn, helps to minimize inventory and increase product turns. With more flow-through, companies manage their business with smaller distribution centres. In addition to containing expenses, this helps to reduce energy consumption and limit the use of construction materials, which are not needed because existing DCs have increased capacity.

(iii) Optimize transportation processes: The use of transportation management solutions to create a more efficient transportation network helps reduce the number of empty hauls and dead-ends in the movement of goods. This reduces fuel consumption and extends the usefulness of trucks and trailers for reduced material usage.

(iv) Enhance planning, forecasting and replenishment: Using best-of-breed planning, forecasting and replenishment solutions drive more efficiency in manufacturing and distribution for reduced energy and materials consumption, as well as improved operational efficiency.

3.2 STRATEGIES FOR ENSURING ENVIRONMENT-FRIENDLY BUSINESS OPERATIONS

Instituting environment - friendly practices does not mean sacrificing your competitive edge. Business owners are realizing that they can make a bigger impact by changing their business policies than by changing their personal behaviour, and this has lead to a change in corporate culture over the last few years that has resulted in a notable environmental impact.

In the past, efforts to institute eco-friendly business practices were admirable, but these efforts appear negligible compared to the changes that are being made today. Minimizing the consumption of paper products and electricity are still effective ways for companies to save money and help the environment at the same time, but many companies are stepping outside these standardized boundaries to effect big changes.

Many companies are choosing to enact organization-wide policies that take enormous effort and patience, and the results of these efforts are just filtering in. Leaving the choice in the hands of consumers often results in poor choices, but when companies choose to be careful about what they produce and how they produce it, the impact can be tremendous.

In the Great Lakes area of the United States and Canada, wind energy is becoming an increasingly viable source of power for companies of all sizes. Wind powered electricity costs only slightly more than standard electricity for the consumer, and many conscientious business owners are willing to pay the premium. For the producers of electricity, using wind power makes sense as a way to help reduce reliance on fossil fuels. Reducing dependence on one commodity allows the producers to further diversify and create a more sustainable financial future for their company. Thus, both the producers and consumers of wind powered electricity benefit from the creation of this clean, environmental-friendly energy source.

Simple changes in business practices and purchasing can make an enormous impact on the environment, and the cost of the choices is usually minimal or non¬existent. Whether or not you believe that carbon emissions are the culprit behind our increasingly unstable global climate, there are simple changes that can be made that would make a big impact on the health of our planet.

F or new businesses that are still finding their feet in a highly competitive market, the size of their profit margin may be more of a concern than the size of their carbon footprint. The advent of the Internet era has enabled businesses to cut costs whilst also building an environment-friendly philosophy across the organization, however, traditional energy-saving methods should not be ignored either. Some of the easiest methods are as follows:

(i) Keep travel to a minimum: One of the biggest expenses many companies have is transporting people for meetings. A lot of valuable time is wasted 'in transit' at airports and stations and 'time', which means wastage of money. However, with Internet technology, travel can be kept to a minimum. Using VoIP software, instant messaging, and e-mail and telephone conferencing services, it is much cheaper than flying a team of executives cross-country for a one-hour meeting.

(ii) Use web-based technology: Companies that have clients or other offices across the world should use web-based technology to keep costs down. Documents can be stored remotely in a secure central hub in cyberspace, with passwords enabling only authorized people to gain access. Using such a technology reduces the need to post or courier or fax any documents. Remote storage saves on office space, furniture and staff time. With encryption it is just as safe as physical storage.

(iii) Run a paperless office: Similarly, digital storage is a cost-effective and environmentally- friendly way of managing important documents. Anything from portable USB hard-drives to large, networked storage facilities can cater for companies of all sizes, which cuts out needless paper waste.

(iv) When printing is unavoidable: In case printing is unavoidable, ensure a printer is compatible with refillable ink cartridges and has a duplex printing function. Many print shops will give significant discounts on fresh cartridges in exchange for your used cartridges. And by printing on both sides of a piece of paper, you can halve the amount of paper you need to use.

(v) Online marketing: Marketing is central to the success of any business. While hard copies of marketing material will always have a place, it is important to optimize online operations. A company's website is often the first port of call for customers-so it must be informative, well presented and easy to navigate. It is required to target new customers on forums, make business listings, and most importantly, have electronic versions of information brochures-many customers prefer mailing information. Having a strong online marketing strategy will boost sales, cut costs and also save a lot of money on printing.

(vi) Turn off equipment: Many companies leave their computers on stand¬by overnight and at weekends, which is a massive waste of energy. Instill a company-wide policy that insists that everyone must tum their computers off if not in use. The same applies to coffee machines, heaters, etc.

(vii) Energy-saving light bulbs: Energy saving light bulbs are very effective, they conserve energy and thus help the environment. They use up to 80 per cent less electricity than a standard bulb, but produce the same amount of light.

Through a combination of Internet technology and a genuine desire to make a difference, all businesses-new or otherwise-can adopt environment-friendly principles and reduce needless financial waste at the same time.

3.2.1 Green Funding

Green funding is a mutual fund or other investment vehicle that will only invest in those companies that are deemed socially conscious in their business dealings or directly promote environmental responsibility. A green funds can come in the form of a focused investment vehicle for companies engaged in environmentally supportive businesses, such as alternative energy, green transport, water and waste management, and sustainable living.A green fund's strategy can be based on avoiding negative company criteria (businesses such as guns, alcohol, gambling, pornography, animal testing, etc.), choosing positive company criteria (environmental programs, energy conservation, fair trade, etc.), or a combination of both strategies.
Based on performance, it is not yet clear whether green funds and socially responsible investing can consistently create better returns for investors. However, they do represent a proactive step towards environmental consciousness, which many investors appreciate.

Socially conscious investing is on the rise, which is due largely to increased worldwide exposure to the issue, as well as increased federal funding for alternative energy and other programs.

3.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

Environmental ethics refers to the issues, principles and guidelines relating to human interactions with their environment. It is rightly said, 'The environmental crisis is an outward manifestation of the crisis of mind and spirit.' It all depends on how we think and act. If we think 'Man is all powerful and the supreme creature on this earth and man is the master of nature and can harness it at his will', it reflects our human¬centric thinking. On the other hand, if we think 'Nature has provided us with all the resources for leading a beautiful life and she nourishes us like a mother, we should respect her and nurture her', this is an earth-centric thinking.

The first view urges us to march ahead gloriously to conquer nature and establish our supremacy over nature through technological innovations, economic growth and development without much botheration about the damage done to the planet earth.
The second view urges us to live on this earth as a part of it, like any other creation of nature and live sustainably. So, we can see that our acts will follow what we think. If we want to check the environmental crisis, we will have to transform our thinking and attitude. That in turn, would transform our deeds, leading to a better environment and better future.

These two world-views are discussed here in relation to environmental protection.

3.3.1 Anthropocentric Worldview

This view guides most industrial societies. It puts human beings at the centre, giving them the highest status. Man is considered to be the most capable for managing the planet earth. The guiding principles of this view are:

1. Man is the planet's most important species and is in charge of the rest of the nature.

2. Earth has an unlimited supply of resources and it all belongs to us.

3. Economic growth is very good and more the growth, the better it is, because it raises our quality of life and the potential for economic growth is unlimited.

4. A healthy environment depends upon a healthy economy.

5. The success of mankind depends upon how good managers we are for deriving benefits for us from the nature.

3.3.2 Ecocentric Worldview

This is based on earth-wisdom. The basic beliefs are as follows:

1. Nature exists not for human beings alone, but for all the species.

2. Earth's resources are limited and they do not belong only to human beings.

3. Economic growth is good till it encourages earth-sustaining development and discourages earth-degrading development.

4. A healthy economy depends upon a healthy environment.

5. The success of mankind depends upon how best we can cooperate with the rest of the nature while trying to use the resources of nature for our benefit. Environmental ethics can provide us the guidelines for putting our beliefs into action and help us in deciding what to do when faced with crucial situations. Some important ethical guidelines known as earth ethics or environmental ethics are as follows:

. One should love and honor the earth since it nurtures life.

. One should keep each day sacred on earth and celebrate the turning of its seasons.

. One should not hold one above other living things and has no right to drive them to extinction.

. One should be grateful to the plants and animals which provides food.

. One should limit the number of off springs because too many people will overburden the earth.

. One should not waste resources on destructive weapons.

. One should not run after gains at the cost of nature, rather should strive to restore its damaged glory.

. One should not conceal from others the effects that have been caused by one's actions on earth.

. One should not steal from future generations their right to live in a clean and safe planet by impoverishing or polluting it.

. One should consume the material goods in moderate amounts so that all may share the earth's precious treasure of resources.

If we critically go through these ten commandments for earth ethics and reflect upon the same, we will find that various religions teach us the same things in one form or the other. Our Vedas also have glorified each and every component of nature as gods or goddesses so that people have a feeling of reverence for them. Our religious and cultural rituals make us perform such actions that would help in the conservation of nature and natural resources. Even the various festivals envisaged by Hinduism also prescribe the participation of humans in the celebrations through nature. (Nisarga Pooja is what we perform during celebrations of our festivals, e.g., Satyanarayana Pooja, Vatapournitma, Baishakhi, Ganesh Festival, Dusshera).

The concept of ahimsa in Buddhism and Jainism ensure the protection and conservation of all forms of life, thereby keeping the ecological balance of the earth intact. Our teachings on 'having fewer wants' ensure to put 'limits to growth', and thus guide us to have an ecocentric lifestyle.

UNIT' 4

THE 'GREENING' OF INDUSTRIES

4.0 INTRODUCTION

Environmentally friendly (also eco- friendly, nature friendly, and green) are synonyms used to refer to goods and services, laws, guidelines and policies considered to inflict minimal or no harm on the environment. /to make consumers aware, environmentally friendly goods and services often are marked with eco-Iabels. However, because there is no single international standard for this concept, the International Organization for Standardization considers such labels too vague to be meaningful.

In this unit, you will learn about the ways of managing industrial pollution and the sources of industrial waste. You will learn about the process of developing recycling technologies and the reasons behind maintaining biodiversity. Government and many institutions support businesses that are environment-friendly. The government does this through NGOs, etc. The unit will discuss the reasons for such governmental policies in detail.

4.2

MANAGING INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION

4.2.1 Sources of Urban and Industrial Wastes

Urban and industrial wastes consist of medical waste from hospitals, municipal solid waste from homes, offices, markets (commercial waste) small cottage units, and horticultural wastes from parks, gardens and orchards.The urban solid waste materials that can be degraded by micro-organisms are called biodegradable wastes; for example, vegetable wastes, stale food, tea leaves, eggshells, peanut shells, dry leaves, etc., are solid wastes.Wastes that cannot be degraded by micro-organisms are called non¬biodegradable wastes, e.g., polyethylene bags, scrap metal, glass bottles, etc.

Industrial waste consists of a large number of materials, including factory rubbish, packaging material, organic waste and acids. There are large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials which are also produced during industrial processing.

Effects of solid wastes

Municipal solid waste heap up on the roads due to improper disposal system. People clean their own houses and litter their immediate surroundings, which affect the community, including themselves. This type of dumping allows biodegradable materials to decompose under uncontrolled and unhygienic conditions. This produces foul smell and breeds various types of insects and infectious organisms, besides spoiling the aesthetics of the site.

Industrial solid wastes are sources of toxic metals and hazardous wastes, which may spread on land and can cause changes in the physiochemical and the biological characteristics, thereby affecting the productivity of soils. Toxic substances may leach or percolate and contaminate groundwater.

4.2.2 Managing Industrial Waste

It takes a lot of valuable energy and materials to create and manufacture products and the resulting industrial waste can be difficult to manage. New laws have been brought into effect by many cities and countries into place to heavily tax companies that produce excess amounts of waste or create potentially harmful effects on the air and ecosystem. The extra taxes help to offset the environment damage by going towards environmental restoration, protection and spreading information to increase knowledge on these issues. People and companies need to educate themselves about the environment. Smog alerts in many cases result from not only harmful transportation emissions, but also from the output of factories into the air we breathe.
Companies need to be responsible with their industrial waste management and specifically their hazardous waste management. Many local governments provide counseling, consulting and recommendations to organizations on what they can do to manage their waste in a better way and plan for a more environmentally friendly production processes. More than ever, disciplinary actions need to be taken against companies that do not take waste management seriously. Part of this includes reducing harmful emissions into the environment over a period of time and correctly disposing of waste materials.

Countries have terms and conditions about what is acceptable in terms of waste management. Today, more than ever, industries know their impact of manufacturing on smog levels and the escalating cost of managing their waste. More industrial leaders are showing their accountability for the environment. Citizens need to support companies whose business practices include environmentally conscious and responsible conditions. Using energy more efficiently, reducing the hazardous waste they output into the air and to the landfills and practicing composting and recycling are key factors in improving the way waste is managed.

Companies that have no choice but to continue creating hazardous industrial waste due to the nature of their business need to ensure that they properly dispose of that material and are up front and honest about the contents of their vehicles, their facilities and management of the waste. Environmental protection acts encourage and reward companies who do their part to more effectively manage waste and work with environmental agencies to maximize efforts to minimize the impact on the environment. Industrial waste producers need to pay for the disposal of their materials and in particular, need to take caution in the way they dispose of hazardous materials. There have been cases documented of companies mislabeling goods and of irresponsible practices leading to contamination of local watersheds. The more that citizens and government push for reform, the more companies will realize that they are accountable for their industrial waste.

4.3 DEVELOPING RECYCLING TECHNOLOGIES

Environmental pollution not only creates health hazards and causes deterioration of the quality of the surroundings, but also affects overall production and, thus, the economy, when examined in a larger perspective.Since pollution generation is a combined result of population, industrialization and specific technological developments, it is difficult to estimate exactly how fast the exponential curve for total pollution air, water, etc., is rising. We might estimate that if? billion people living in the year 2000 have a GNP per capita as high as that of present day Americans, the total pollution load on environment would be at least ten times of its present value.Before adopting any "measure to control pollution, both the capital and energy expenditure involved should be studied; the quality of the commodity obtained or service provided, examined, and an assessment made to see whether it is indeed' a good measure' or not. For this, the concept of resource should be clarified, the rate of its depletion determined. The lifestyle, as reflected in the waste we produce and its composition should be analysed to assess what can be reclaimed/recovered from it. A detailed examination of the refuse will, then, enable assessment to be made of the recovery or conversion potential.
One of the most economical methods of controlling pollution seems to be the recycling arrangement, i.e., one in which the pollutants are, by and large, processed at the place of their generation itself, and converted into products which could be used there or as raw material for more useful products.Recycling is a much abused term, generally taken to mean getting something back from waste, e.g., newspaper recovery by de-inking, followed by repulping, to make more newsprint.

In fact, recycling falls into three main categories: 1. Re-use

2. Direct recycle

3. Indirect recycle

Reuse is typified by the returnable bottle or tin; it means several steps from the bottler to the consumer and back again, where it is cleaned and refilled. Once it is unfit for reuse, it may be cleaned and broken down for cullet, i.e., glass which is remelted at the glass works and used to make new bottles. The latter process comes under the heading of direct recycling, which is dependent on the quality of recycled material and on its cost, which should not exceed that of the fresh raw material. It is quite probable that the bottle may eventually end up in domestic refuse, where it can be extracted by screening and separation in conjunction with other bottles. These bottles will probably be of different colours, and at varying degrees of cleanliness, which might render them unsuitable for cullet, unless optical sorting is opted which would, however, raise costs. The bottles may, however, be ground and used for a I highly skid-resistant and durable road surfacing material. This is an example of indirect recycling. Other examples are: (i) the conversion of refuse to combustible gases by I pyrolysis (ii) direct heating by means of incineration with heat recovery.

Energy resource conservation

Increasing use of energy by mankind is also related to pollution. The process of economic development, is, in fact, the process of utilizing to increase the productivity I and efficiency of human labour. In fact, one of the best indicators of the wealth of a human population is the amount of energy it consumes per person. Per capita energy consumption, in the world, is increasing at a rate of 1.3 per cent per year, which means a total increase, including population growth, of 3.4 per cent per year.

At present, 97 per cent of industrial energy production comes from fossil fuels, i.e., coal, oil and natural gas. Current global production of oil is tending to flatten out at around 20 billion barrels/year at the moment, due to energy economy measures adopted following the major 1972 price increase. However, viewed against man's life-time, this curve is cause for anxiety as it means that the industry has to find 20 billion barrels/year just to maintain the current production rates. Should the finding rate fall further, the reserves will be consumed and eventually decline to zero. Now, the current finding rate is 18 billion barrels/year and proven reserves total 600 billion barriers. Thus, the global problem is likely to become serious before the turn of the century. Coal reserves have a cycle of production, which tails off around the year 2300. India has only 0.8 per cent of the total world coal reserves. I

For extracting energy out of fossil fuels, they are burned. In the process, they release, among other substances, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide into the atmosphere. Currently, 20 billion tonnes of CO2 are being released from fossil fuel combustion every year. Figure 4.1 shows that the amount of CO 2 in the atmosphere is increasing exponentially, at the rate of 0.2 per cent per year. One half of this CO2 actually appears in the atmosphere, while the other half is apparently absorbed, mainly by the surface waters/oceans.

The reserves of oil, natural gas and coal have started depleting. Their use as the source of energy will not only create a pollution problem, but also complicate the growth of petrochemical industries. Already, cases are being made for reservation of these resources for chemical synthesis, in order to prolong the time-span available for the construction of synthetic oil and gas plants using the still abundant coal reserves as raw material.Efforts are being made to develop technology for large-scale power generation, especially fast breeder nuclear reactors. The use of nuclear energy will decrease the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere and abolish other complexities which arise when fossil feels are used. Nuclear reactors produce unused fissionable material as waste, the reprocessing of which is always superior to the direct disposal of spent fuel in terms of economy, material conservation and environmental protection. Recycling of unused fissionable material, through reprocessing, is very important as the process of reusing can be repeated until forty times as much energy has been extracted from the raw material as can be done in conventional reactors. Recycling and reprocessing permit the use of synthetic fissionable material, and conserves natural fissionable material. Nuclear energy can also be converted into electrical energy, which is pollution free. Another side effect of the use of this energy which is independent of fuel sources, is its dissipation as heat. If the energy source is something other than incident solar energy (e.g., fossil fuel or nuclear energy), that heat results in warming the atmosphere. Locally, waste heat or thermal pollution in stream causes disruption in the balance of aquatic life. Thermal pollution may also have serious worldwide climatic effects, when it reaches some appreciable fraction of energy, normally absorbed by the earth from the sun. The natural sources of energy, prime amongst which is the sun, can also be considered as one of the future energy sources.

Therefore, it is obvious that energy resources vis-a.-vis the current rate of consumption are finite. Growth cannot continue forever and strategies must be adopted for a more economic use of energy and for the abatement of the pollution caused thereby

Conservation of material resources

Resources, when looked at in a perspective, fall into two categories: renewable and non-renewable. Renewable materials do not pose too much of a problem both :from the point of view of conservation as well as pollution. Non-renewable materials, however, create problems of pollution. Their conservation through recycling could reduce such problems and also make them available for longer periods of time. Material recycling can, thus, substantially aid in the conservation of energy which would be spent on its extraction.

The harmful effects of metals, e.g., lead, mercury, chromium, arsenic, copper, zinc, etc., are well known. These metals are ejected :from various industrial units into the environment, thus, polluting air, water and soil as well. The other sources of their release into waterways and into the atmosphere are automobiles, incinerators and agricultural pesticides.

The mercury pollution of water because of the use of mercury cells in caustic soda manufacture is responsible for reduction in the application of these cells in spite of their many advantages over diaphragm cells. Japan has had serious problems of mercury pollution, which ultimately resulted in the issual of an ordinance for discontinuation of the use of mercury cells.

The world's known reserves of chromium are about 775 million m. tonnes, of which 1.85 million m. tonnes are mined annually at present. Thus, at the current rate of use, the known reserves would last about 420 years. The actual world consumption of chromium is increasing at the rate of 2.6 per cent annually. If the exponential relationship in an increased rate of consumption is assumed, the reserves would last for only 95 years. If the undiscovered reserves increase the present reserves by five times, this would extend the life time of reserves only from 95-150 years. The lifetime of aluminium is estimated to be 100 years using a static index, 31 years with an exponential index, 55 years with a five-fold increase in reserves.

Copper, with a life time of 36 years at the present usage rate, would actually last only 21 years at the present rate of growth, and 45 years if reserves are multiplied by five. Table 4.1 gives the position of reserves of non-renewable natural resources and their life time rising static and exponential indices.

Table 4.1 Non-renewable Natural Resources

Resources Known global Static Average Exponential Exponential

reserves index * rate of index index ** using

(yrs) growth (yrs) 5 tonnes known

% ver year reserves

Nickel 147 x 1091bs 150 3.4 53 96

Chrop1ium 7.75 x 10'tonnes 420 2.6 95 154

Aluminium 1.17 x 109 tonnes 100 6.4 31 55

Copper 308 x 106 tonnes 36 4.6 21 48

Lead 91 x 10' tonnes 26 2.0 21 64

Iron I x 10' tonnes 240 1.8 93 173

Mercury 3.34 x 104 flasks 13 2.6 \3 41

Tin 4.36 x 106 tOImes 17 1.1 15 61

Zinc 123 x 106 tonnes 23 2.9 18 50

Total reserve

* Static index = Total Reserves

Current annual consumption

                                       In(rs)-1

** Exponential index =      ¬ r

             r

where, r = average rate of growth

s = static index

Taking into account economic factors, such as increased prices with decreased availability, it would appear at present that the quantities of platinum, gold, zinc, lead, etc., are not sufficient to meet demand. At the present rate of expansion, silver, tin and uranium may be in short supply even at higher prices by the turn of the century. By the year 2050, several more minerals may be exhausted if the current rate of consumption continues. Taking the example of lead, in 1960 global demand had risen to 4.5 m tonnes/year, but reserves had risen to 90 million tonnes due to further discoveries. However, extrapolation as a paper exercise show that by the year 2020 there would be a demand of 25 m tonnes/year, which if an R: P ratio of 20 were the norm would require 500 m tonnes of reserves which are just not there.

The consumption of these minerals, in a more efficient manner, would help in minimizing pollution and conserving materials as well as the energy spent on them. Recycling appears to be one of the best ways to meet this end. This is illustrated by

the following relationship:

Demand on reserve = P(1 - R)

Let annual production P be constant and the Recycled fraction be R. Thus, the

life time of reserves is extended by

                    P         I
                P(I-R) = 1-R

i.e., for a recycling factor of 50 per cent, the life time is doubled; for a recycling factor of99 per cent, the life time is extended by 100.

The production curves being exponential to reserves, depletion would be faster and the effect of recycling will have less impact due to the time lag between raw material production and its arrival back to scrap cycle. the adoption of recycling in an exponential growth situation can only mildly assist the inexorable march of resource depletion. Obviously, a static consumption situation is required with maximum recycling to conserve resources in on long-term and not short-term basis.

The problems associated with adopting recycling may be the cost factor, obtaining of proper know-how, etc., which could be overcome by proper planning. The problems of cost could be tackled by legislature, tax relief, cash incentives, development rebate, etc. This would encourage industries to even invest in setting up of plants for waste processing and encourage conscious industrialists to come forward with new ideas of controlling pollution. The chain reaction, so started, will go a long way in conserving energy and materials, minimizing pollution and providing a better environment to mankind to live in.

4.4

MAINTAINING BIODIVERSITY

If we divide the whole earth into 10 billion parts, it is only one part where life exists and the 50 million species are all restricted to just about a kilometre-thick layer of soil, water and air. It is indeed wonderful to see that so much diversity has been created by nature on this earth from so little physical matter. Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among all groups of living organisms and the ecosystem complexes in which they occur. In the Convention of Biological Diversity,

1992, biodiversity has been defined as the variability among living organisms from all sources including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part of. Biodiversity means the variety and variability of all living organisms. Biodiversity constitutes the biological wealth. Biodiversity is at three levels, genetic diversity, species diversity and ecosystem diversity.

Genetic biodiversity

Genetic biodiversity is the "basic source of biodiversity. Genes found in organisms can fom1 enormous number of combinations, each of which gives rise to some variability. Genes are the basic units of hereditary information, transmitted from one generation to other. When the genes within the same species show different versions, due to new combinations, it is called genetic variability; for example, all rice varieties belong to the species Oryza sativa, but there are thousands of wild and cultivated varieties of rice which show variations at the genetic level and differ in their colour, size, shape, aroma and nutrient content of the grain. This is genetic diversity of rice.

Genetic biodiversity means the variation of genes within a species. In a species, each variety has its own genes or genetic make-up. Diversity of genes within a species increases its ability ~o adapt to disease, pollution and other changes in environment. When a variety of a species is destroyed, genetic diversity gets diminished.

Species biodiversity

This is the variability found within the population of a species or between different species of a community. It represents broadly the species richness and their abundance in a community.

Till now, only about 1.5 million living and 300000 fossil species have been actually described and given scientific names. It is quite likely that a large fraction of these species may have become extinct even before they were discovered and enlisted.

Species biodiversity means a variety of species within a region. Such diversity can be measured on the basis of species in a region. More the species biodiversity means more the biological wealth.

Ecosystem biodiversity

This is the diversity of ecological complexity showing variations in ecological niches, tropic structure, food webs, nutrient cycling, etc. Ecosystems also show variations with respect to physical parameters like moisture, temperature, altitude and precipitation. Thus, there occurs tremendous diversity within the ecosystems, along these gradients.

We mainly consider diversity in forest ecosystem, which is supposed to have a dominance of trees. However, while considering a tropical rainforest, a tropical deciduous forest, a temperate deciduous forest and a boreal forest, the variations observed are too many and they are mainly due to variations in these physical factors.

Ecosystem diversity is of great value that must be kept intact. This diversity has developed over millions of years of evolution. If we destroy this diversity, it would disrupt the ecological balance. We cannot replace the diversity of one ecosystem with that of another. Coniferous trees of boreal forests cannot take up the function of the trees of tropical deciduous forest lands and vice versa, because ecosystem diversity has evolved with respect to the prevailing environmental conditions with well regulated ecological balance.

Ecosystem biodiversity refers to the variety of ecosystem in a particular region or zone, for example, various ecosystems include forests, wetlands, arid zones and deserts. All these have their own fauna and flora (biodiversity).

4.4.1 Biogeographical Classification of India

India has different types of climate and topography in different parts of the country and these variations have induced enormous variability in flora and fauna. India has a rich heritage of biological diversity and occupies the tenth position among the plant. rich nations of the world.

It is very important to study the distribution, evolution, dispersal and environmental relationship of plants and animals in time and space. There are ten different bio-geographic habitats in India. These are as follows:

1. Trans-Himalayan: Upper regions.

2. Himalayan: North-West Himalayas, West, Central and East Himalayas.

3. Desert: Kutch, Thar and Ladakh.

4. Semi-Arid: Central India, Gujarat-Rajwara.

5. Western Ghats: Malabar Coast, Western Ghat Mountains.

6. Deccan Peninsula: Deccan Plateau South, Central, Eastern, Chhota Nagpur.

7. Gangetic Plain: Upper Gangetic Plain, Lower Gangetic Plain.

8. North-East India: Brahmaputra Valley, North Eastern Hills.

9. Islands: Andaman Islands, Nicobar Islands, Laskhadweep, etc.

10. Coasts: West Coast and East Coast.

4.4.2 Value of Biodiversity

Biodiversity in terms of its commercial utility, ecological service, social and aesthetic value has enormous importance. We are benefited by other organisms in innumerable ways. Sometimes, we come to know and appreciate the value of an organism only after it is lost from this earth. Very small, insignificant, useless looking organism may play a crucial role in the ecological balance of the ecosystem or may be a potential source of some invaluable drug for dreaded diseases like cancer or AIDS. The multiple uses of biodiversity is classified as follows:

Consumptive use value

These include direct use values where the biodiversity product can be harvested and consumed directly, e.g., fuel, food, drugs and fibre.

Food: A large number of wild plants and shrubs are consumed by human beings as food. About 80,000 edible plant species have been reported from the wild. About 90 per cent of present day food crops have been domesticated from wild tropical plants. Even now, our agricultural scientists make use of the existing wild species of plants that are closely related to our crop plants for developing new hardy strains. Wild relatives usually possess better tolerance and hardiness. A large number of wild animals are also our sources of food.

Drugs and medicines: About 75 per cent of the world's population depends upon plants or plant extracts for medicines. The wonder drug penicillin used as an antibiotic is derived from a fungus called penicillium. Likewise, we get tetracyclin from a bacterium. Quinine, the cure for malaria is obtained from the bark of the cinchona tree, while digitalin is obtained from foxglove (digitalis) which is an effective cure for heart ailments. Recently, vinblastin and vincristine, two anti-cancer drugs, have been obtained from periwinkle (catharanthus) plant, which possesses anti-cancer
alkaloids. A large number of marine animals are supposed to possess anti-cancer properties, which are yet to be explored systematically.
Fuel: Our forests have been used since ages for fuel wood. The fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas are also products of fossilized biodiversity. Firewood collected by individuals are not normally marketed, but are directly used by tribals and local villagers; hence, falls under constructive value.

Productive use values

These are the commercially usable values, where the product is marketed and sold. It may include lumber or wild gene resources that can be traded for use by scientists for introducing desirable traits in the crops and domesticated animals. These may also include animal products like tusks of elephants, musk from musk deer, silk from silkworm, wool from sheep, fur of many animals and lac from lac insects, all of which are traded in the market. Many industries are dependent upon the productive use of values of biodiversity, e.g., paper and pulp industry, plywood industry, railway sleeper industry, silk industry, textile industry, ivory-works, leather industry, pearl industry, etc.

Despite international ban on trade in products from endangered species, fur, hide, horns, tusks, live specimen, etc., worth millions of dollars are being sold every year. Developing countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America are the richest biodiversity centres and wildlife products are smuggled and marketed in large quantities to some rich western countries and also to China and Hong Kong, where export of animal skins and snake skins is a booming business.

Social value

These are the values associated with the social life, customs, religion and psycho¬spiritual aspects of the people. Many of the plants are considered holy and sacred in our country like tu/si (holy basil), peepa/, mango, lotus and bael. The leaves, fruits or flowers of these plants are used in worship or the plant itself is worshipped. The tribal people are closely linked with the wildlife in the forest. Their social life, songs, dances and customs are closely woven around the wildlife. Many animals like cow, snake, bull, peacock and owl, also have significant place in our psycho-spiritual arena and thus, hold special social importance. Thus, biodiversity has a distinct social value attached with different societies.

Ethical value

It is also sometimes known as existence value. It involves ethical issues like 'all life must be preserved'. It is based on the concept of 'live and let live'. If we want our human race to survive, then we must protect all biodiversity, because biodiversity is valuable.

Ethical value means that we mayor may not use a species, but knowing the fact that these species exists in nature gives us pleasure. We all feel sorry when we learn that 'passenger pigeon' or 'dodo' is extinct. We are not deriving anything directly from the kangaroo, zebra or giraffe, but we all strongly feel that these species would exist in nature. This means, there is an ethical value or existence value attached to each species.

Aesthetic value

Great aesthetic value is attached to biodiversity. None of us would like to visit vast stretches of barren lands with no signs of visible life. People from far and wide spend a lot of time and money to visit wilderness areas, where they can enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this type of tourism is now known as ecotourism. The 'willingness to pay' concept on such ecotourism gives us even a monetary estimate for aesthetic value of biodiversity. Ecotourism is estimated to generate about US $12 billion of revenue annually, this roughly gives the aesthetic value of biodiversity.

Option value

These values include the potential of biodiversity that are presently unknown and need to be explored. There is a possibility that we may have some potential cure for AIDS or cancer existing within the depths of a marine ecosystem or a tropical rainforest.

Thus, option value is the knowledge that there are biological resources existing on this biosphere that may one day prove to be an effective option for something important in the future. Thus, the option value of biodiversity suggests that any species

may prove to be a miracle species someday. Biodiversity is like precious gifts of nature presented to us. We should not commit the folly of losi'1g these gifts even before unwrapping them.

Option value also includes the values, in terms of the option to visit areas where a variety of flora and fauna, or specifically some endemic, rare or endangered species exist.

Ecosystem service value

Recently, a non-consumptive use value related to self maintenance of the ecosystem and various important ecosystem services has been recognized. It refers to the services provided by the ecosystems like prevention of soil erosion, prevention of floods, maintenance of soil fertility, cycling of nutrients, fixation of nitrogen, cycling of water, their role as carbon sinks, pollutant absorption and reduction of the threat of global warming, etc.

Different categories of biodiversity value clearly indicate that ecosystem, species and genetic diversity all have enormous potential, and a decline in biodiversity will lead to huge economic, ecological and socio-cultural losses.

4.4.3 Global Biodiversity

The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development at Rio in 1992, put biological diversity on the international agenda by signing the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD). This convention addresses many issues ranging from forests, agriculture to Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs).

India is a signatory to CBD and ratified it in 1993. The Government of India has finalized the National Policy and Action Strategy for Biodiversity. A legislation was finalized and the Indian Parliament passed the Biodiversity Bill in 2002.

The objective of the convention was 'the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.' It also covered the ecological, economic and social aspects of biodiversity.

The success of the convention can be evaluated in following two main ways:

(i) By ana1ysing the changes in biodiversity components (i.e., species and ecosystems ).

(ii) By measuring the effectiveness of the measures taken to implement the convention.

According to the Worldwide Fund for Nature, scientists have identified about 1.4 million species. Of these, around 1.03 million are animals and 2,48,000 are higher plants. But, human knowledge of the world's biodiversity is still not complete. Higher plants have also been fairly well studied, but it is possible that 15 per cent more may still be discovered. Numerous insects, invertebrates, lower plants and micro-organisms exist, but have yet to be identified and described. One recent estimate put this figure as high as 30 million.

Human impact on nature has reached such high proportions that the world is today witnessing an extraordinary rate in loss of species. Many thousands of species will disappear even before they are found and described by biologists. In 1988, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) listed 4,589 threatened animals. Scientists at the Kew Gardens in Britain listed around 20,000 plant species as threatened. According to an estimate by the IUCN's Threatened Plants Unit, by the year 2050 up to 60,000 plant species will become extinct or threatened. These estimates show that the current rate of extinction is at least 25,000 times greater than the extinction that took place during evolutionary times. The rate of extinction of mammals alone has risen from one species every five years in the seventeenth century to one every two years in the 20th century.

Biological diversity at national level

Every country is characterized by its own biodiversity depending mainly on its climate. India has a rich biological diversity of flora and fauna. Overall, 6 per cent of the global species are found in India. It is estimated that India ranks tenth among the plant rich countries of the world, eleventh in terms of the number of endemic species of higher vertebrates and sixth among the centres of diversity and origin of agricultural crops.

The total number of living species identified in our country is 1,50,000. Out of the total twenty-five biodiversity hot spots in the world, India possesses two, one in the north-east region and one in the Western Ghats. Indian is also one of the twelve mega-biodiversity countries in the world.

India as a mega-diversity nation

India is one of the twelve mega-diversity countries in the world. The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India (2000) records 47,000 species of plants and 81,000 species of animals which is about 7 per cent and 6.5 per cent respectively of global flora and fauna. These major groups of species include endemism, centre of origin, marine diversity, etc.

A large proportion of the Indian biodiversity is still unexplored. There are about ninety-three major wet lands, coral reefs and mangroves which need to be studied in detail. Indian forests cover 64.01 million hectares which has rich biodiversity of plants in the Trans-Himalayan, north-west, west, central and eastern Himalayan forests, Western Ghats, coasts, deserts, Gangetic Plains, Deccan Plateau and the Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands. Due to its diverse climatic conditions, there is a complete spectrum of biodiversity in our country.

Hot spots of biodiversity

Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are , termed as hot spots of biodiversity. Species which are restricted only to particular areas are known as endemic. India shows a good number of endemic species. About 62 per cent of amphibians and 50 per cent of lizards are endemic to India. Western Ghats are the site of maximum endemism. The term 'hot spots' was introduced by Myers (1988). There are twenty-five such hot spots of biodiversity on a global level, out of which two are present in India, namely the Eastern Himalayas and the Western Ghats.

These hot spots covering less than 2 per cent of the world's land area are found to have about 50 per cent of the terrestrial biodiversity. According to Myers, an area is designated as a hot spot when it contains at least 0.5 per cent of the plant species as endemics.

(i) Eastern Himalayas: They display an ultra-varied topography that fosters species diversity and endemism. Recent studies have shown that North East

India along with its contiguous regions of Burma and Chinese provinces of Yunnan and Schezwan is an active centre of organic evolution and is considered to be the cradle of flowering plants. Out of the world's recorded flora, 30 per cent are endemic to India of which 35000 are in the Himalayas.

(ii) Western Ghats: It extends along a 17,000 km2 strip of forests in Maharashtra, Kamataka, Tamil N adu and Kerala and has 40 per cent of the the total endemic plant species. The major centres of diversity are Agastyamalai Hills and Silent Valley-the new Amambalam Reserve Basin. It is reported that only 6.8 per cent of the original forests are existing today, while the rest have been deforested or degraded, which raises a serious cause of alarm, because it means we have already lost a huge proportion of the biodiversity.

4.4.4 Threats to Biodiversity

Extinction or elimination of a species is a natural process of evolution. In the geologic period, earth has experienced mass extinctions. During evolution, many species have died and have been replaced by others. However, the rate of loss of species in the geologic past has been a slow process, keeping in view the vast span of time going back to 444 million years. The process of extinction has become particularly fast in the recent years of civilization. In the recent times, the human impact has been so

severe that thousands of species and varieties are becoming extinct annually. One of

the estimates puts the figure of extinction at 10,000 species per year or 27 per day. These figures raise an alarm regarding the serious threat to biodiversity. Over the last

150 years, the rate of extinction has escalated more dramatically. If the present trend continues, we would lose one-third to two-third of our current biodiversity by the middle of the 21st century.

The following are the major causes and issues related to threats to biodiversity:

(i) Loss of habitat

Destruction and loss of natural habitat is the single largest cause of losing own biodiversity. Billions of hectares of forests and grasslands have been cleared over the past 10,000 years for conversion into agricultural lands, pastures, settlement areas or development projects. These forests and grasslands were the homes of thousands of species, which perished due to loss of their natural habitat. Severe damage has been caused to wetlands, thinking them to be useless ecosystems. The unique and rich biodiversity of the wetlands, estuaries and mangroves are under serious threat today. The wetlands are destroyed due to draining, filling and pollution, thereby causing huge loss of biodiversity.

The habitat is divided into small and scattered patches, so that the complete loss of habitat can be put at bay. This phenomenon is known as habitatfragmentation. There are many wildlife species such as bears and large cats that require large territories to subsist. They are threatened as they breed only in the interiors of the forests. Due to habitat fragmentation, many song birds are becoming extinct.

There has been a rapid disappearance of tropical forests in our country, at the rate of about 0.6 per cent per year. With the current rate of loss of forest habitat, it is estimated that 20-25 per cent of the global flora would be lost within a few years. Marine diversity is also under serious threat due to large-scale destruction of the fragile breeding and feeding grounds of fish and other species.

(ii) Poaching

Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals, i.e., poaching is another threat to wildlife. Despite international ban on trade in products from endangered species, smuggling of wildlife items like furs, hides, horns, tusks, live specimens and herbal products worth millions of dollars per year, continues. The developing nations in Asia, Latin America and Africa are the richest source of biodiversity and have enormous wealth of wildlife. The rich countries in Europe and North America and some affluent countries in Asia like Japan, Taiwan and Hong Kong are the major importers of wildlife products or wildlife itself.

The trading of such wildlife products is highly profitable for the poachers who smuggle them to other countries mediated through mafia. The worst part is that for every live animal that actually gets into the market, about fifty additional animals are caught and killed.

If you are fond of rare fishes or birds, please make sure that you are not going to harm the endangered species or wild-caught species. Doing so will help in checking further decline of these species. Also, do not purchase fur coat, purse or bag, or items made of crocodile skin or python skin. You will certainly help in preserving biodiversity by doing so.

4.4.5 Man-Wildlife Conflicts

We have discussed the need to preserve and protect wildlife. However, sometimes we come across conflicting situations when wildlife starts causing immense damage and danger to man and under such conditions it becomes very difficult for the forest department to pacify the affected villages and gain local support for wildlife conservation.

Instances of man-animal conflicts keep on coming to limelight from several states in our country. In Sambalpur, Orissa, 195 humans were killed in the recent past by elephants. In retaliation, the villagers killed ninety-five elephants in the border region of Kote-Chamarajanagar belt in Mysore. The man-elephant conflict in this

region has arisen because of massive damage done by the elephants to the cotton and sugarcane crops. The villagers electrocute the elephants and sometimes, hide explosives in the sugarcane fields, which explode as the elephants intrude into their fields. In fact, more killings are done by locals than by poachers. In early 2004, a man-eating tiger was reported to have killed sixteen Nepalese people and a four-year old child inside the Royal Chitwan National Park, 240 km South-west of Kathmandu. The park, once renowned for its wildlife conservation effort has become a zone of terror for the locals. Similar incidents were reported near Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Borivali, Mumbai where similar incidents of human killings, especially of small children was reported. At times, such conflicting situations have been reported from the border regions of Corbett, Dudhwa, Palamau and Ranthambore National Parks in our country as well.

Recently, in June 2004, two men were killed by leopards in Powai, Mumbai.A total of fourteen people were killed during nineteen attacks since January by the leopards from the Sanjay Gandhi National Park, Mumbai which has triggered a panic among the local residents.

Causes of man-animal conflicts

1. Dwindling habitats of tigers, elephants, rhinos and bears due to shrinking forest cover are compelled to move outside the forests. Human encroachment into the forest areas has rendered all forest living animals to trespass the borders of human civilizations. This is because the conflicts between man and the wildlife have increased since it is an issue of survival of both.

2. Usually the ill, weak and injured animals have a tendency to attack man. Also, the female tigress attacks humans if she feels that her newborns are in danger. But, the biggest problem is that if human-flesh is tasted once, then the tiger prefers having human flesh than the flesh of any other animals. At the same time, it is very difficult to trace and cull the man-eating tiger and in the process many innocent tigers are also killed. The Sunderbans in Wt . t Bengal, are noted for the existence of man-eating tigers.

3. Earlier, the forest department used to cultivate paddy, sugarcane, etc., within the sanctuaries, when the favourite staple food of elephants, i.e., bamboo leaves were not available. Now, due to lack of such practices the animals tent to move out of the forest in search of food. It may be noted that, one adult elephant needs 2 quintals of green fodder and 150 kg of clean water daily and if it is not available, the animal strays out.

4. Very often, the villagers put electric wiring around their ripe crop fields. The elephants get injured, suffer in pain and turn violent.

5. Earlier, there used to be wildlife corridors through which the wild animals used to migrate seasonally in groups to other areas. Due to development of human settlements in these corridors, the path of wildlife has been disrupted and the animals attack the settlements.

6. The cash compensation paid by the government in lieu of the damage caused to the farmers' crop is not enough. In Mysore, a farmer gets compensation of ~ 400 per quintal of expected yield, while the market price is Rs 2,400 per quintal. The agonized farmer, therefore, gets vengeful and kills the wild animals.

Remedial measures to curb the conflict

1. Tiger Conservation Project (TCP) has made provisions for making available vehicles, tranquillizer guns, binoculars and radio sets, etc., to tactfully deal with any imminent danger.

2. Adequate crop compensation and cattle compensation schemes should be introduced, along with substantial cash compensation for loss of human life.

3. Solar-powered fencing should be provided along with electric current proof trenches to prevent the animals from straying into fields.

4. Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders and adequate fodder, fruit and water should be made available for the elephants within forest zones.

5. Wildlife corridors should be provided for mass migration of big animals during unfavourable periods. About 300 km2 area is required for elephant corridors for their seasonal migration.

6. In Similipal Sanctuary, Orissa, there is a ritual of wild animal hunting during the months of April-May for which the forest is burnt to flush out the animals. Due to massive hunting by people, there is a decline in the prey of tigers and they start coming out of the forest in search of prey. Now, there is WWF - TCP initiative to curb this ritual of 'Akhand Shikar' in Orissa.

4.4.6 Conservation of Biodiversity

Due to the tremendous importance of biodiversity it is considered an asset of a region or a nation. Due to its multiple advantages of commercial value, consumption value, medicinal value, social, cultural, religious and optional values, biodiversity needs to be conserved. The need for its protection and conservation has become more important due to overexploitation and the subsequent depletion. There are two types of methods of conservation of biodiversity, which are as follows:

1. Ex-situ

2. In-situ

Ex-situ conservation means off-site protection of biodiversity. It is the process of protecting an endangered species of plant or animal by removing it from an unsafe or threatened habitat and placing it under human care.

While Ex-situ conservation is comprises some of the oldest and best-known techniques known to and created by man, it also involves newer techniques like laboratory method.

Ex-situ conservation

Creation of zoos, botanical gardens, culture collection centres are the most conventional and traditional methods of ex-situ conservation, all of which house and protect specimens for breeding and reproduction of wild life animals and plants. Endangered plants may also be preserved in part in such botanical garden through seed banks and germplasm banks.

Endangered animals are preserved using similar techniques through preservation in gene bank.

In the gene banks, which consist of cryogenic facilities, live sperms, eggs or embryos can be stored. Some countries have established frozen zoos to store such samples from more than 366 species, which consist of mammals, reptiles and birds.

Drawbacks of ex-situ conservation

Though ex-situ conservation is helpful to man's effort to sustain and protect biodiversity, is rarely enough to save a species from extinction. It can be used as a last resort or as a supplement to in-situ conservation. It cannot re-create a habitat. Furthermore, ex-¬situ conservation techniques are often costly.

In-situ conservation In-situ conservation means to conserve the biodiversity within the habitat and on site. It is a process of protecting an endangered species of plant or animal in its natural habitat, either by protecting or preventing the habitat itself from being depleted.

The benefit of in-situ conservation is that it maintains the natural surroundings of the population of the animals or plant in its natural distinctive property.

In-situ conservation should be preferred to ex-situ conservation, the latter opted only in case where in-situ conservation is either too difficult or impossible. Wildlife conservation is mostly based on in-situ conservation through protection and recreation of the wildlife habitat.

4.5 GOVERNMENTAL AND INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT FOR ESTABLISHING AND MAINTAINING ENVIRONMENT-FRIENDLY BUSINESS

4.5.1 The Role of N GOs in Business Activities

National and international commitments for protection of environment by entering into agreements/protocols made at the international level are meaningless without their enforcement. The reasons for poor implementation may be many. They are as follows:

. Lack of political will

. Scarcity of fund

. Decisions taken in regard to environmental issues may not be very sound .

• Implication of such decisions could not be properly visualized

Against this background, some spirited citizens put pressure either on their own or through non-governmental organizations (NGOs) for the implementation of the policies of the agreements.

It has been seen that the services rendered by the environmental NGGs are commendable. They exert all sorts of pressure on the national government, the I international agencies and the business corporations for furthering the cause of ; environment-related issues. They become the mediators between the government and the citizens. They work at the grassroots level as also with the poor or socially disadvantaged people and provide them the necessary support.NGOs like the Worldwide Fund (WWF), Greenpeace, and Friends of the Earth operate at the global level. NGOs work very hard to gather public opinion. Their efforts have brought changes in the policy of some companies, e.g., Shell, Germany's oil giant, was planning to dump its worn out oil ship, the Brent Spar in the North Sea. Greenpeace organized a boycott of the service stations of Shell, Gennany, and thus prevented this trom happening.

In 1990, the World Trade Organization (WTO) organized a meeting in Seattle, Washington, which was attended by about 5000 delegates including the environment ministers of various countries. But WTO was not willing to consider the environmental and poverty issues adequately which resulted in a big demonstration. The protestors disrupted the meeting, and the situation became so serious that the US authorities had to use teargas, arrest hundreds of protestors and impose curfew. The talks at the Seattle meeting failed.

In another case, the government of Taiwan wanted to buy a piece of land in North Korea to dump its nuclear wastes. The Korean Federation of Environment Movement opposed this move and prevented it from happening. Thus, NGOs can confront the government that do not act rationally.

The Indian scenario

Safe and hygienic human waste disposal

Dr Bindeshwar Pathak founded a non-profit society named Sulabh International Social Service Organization. Dr Pathak and his team of engineers, scientists, architects and planners have developed two methods for safe and hygienic disposal of human waste. One of the methods, popularly know as 'Sulabh Shouchalaya' is affordable and can be adopted by the poor, middle class and the upper class people. It requires only two litres of water for flushing, resulting in the economy of water use. There is no vent pipe for the exit of the gas and hence it is eco- friendly. Finally, in this method, human excreta get converted into manure onsite, which works as good fertilizer to raise the productivity of the fields. This can help in increasing financial support for agro-based industries. This method also removed the problem of sanitation and environment pollution by installing such toilets around the country.

Narmada Valley Project

Another example of non-governmental efforts for the cause of environmental protection and other related problem is the Narmada Valley Project for generation of hydroelectricity and irrigation of lands.

This Project included the construction of two large dams ( the Sardar Sarovar and the Nannada Sagar projects) and making of small dams to generate electric power. It would also irrigate million hectares of agricultural land in Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan and make available drinking water. From 1989, the activists of the Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA), has been holding demonstrations, courting arrests, led by Medha Patkar with the support of other N GOs. The main objective of NBA is to resist the government's efforts to build the dams which would result in the destruction of the environment and bring miseries to people, especially to the tribal population.

4.5.2 Role of Governmental Support

The government has come up with many environmental policies to help the environment and to minimize the damages caused by many businesses. Environmental policy isany course of action deliberately taken, or not taken, to manage human activities with a view to prevent, reduce, or mitigate harmful effects on nature and natural resources, and ensuring that man-made changes to the environment do not have harmful effects on humans .Environmental policy instruments are tools used by governments to implement their environmental policies. Governments may use a number of different types of instruments. For example, economic incentives and market-based instruments such as taxes and tax exemptions, tradable permits, and fees can be very effective to encourage compliance with environmental policy.

Voluntary measures, such as bilateral agreements negotiated between the government and private firms and commitments made by firms independent of government pressure, are other instruments used in environmental policy. Another instrument is the implementation of greener public purchasing programs.

Often, several instruments are combined in an instrument mix formulated to address a certain environmental problem. Since environmental issues often have many different aspects, several policy instruments may be needed to adequately address each one. Furthermore, instrument mixes may allow firms greater flexibility in finding ways to comply with government policy while reducing the uncertainty in the cost of doing so. However, instrument mixes must be carefully formulated, so that the individual measures within them do not undermine each other or create. a rigid and cost-ineffective compliance framework. Also, overlapping instruments lead to unnecessary administrative costs, making implementation of environmental policies more costly than necessary In order to help governments realize their environmental policy goals, the OECD Environment Directorate studies and collects data on the efficiency of the environmental instruments governments use to achieve their goals as well as their consequences for other policies. The site www.economicinstruments.com serves as a complementary database detailing the experiences of countries with the application of instruments for environmental policy.

It will be interesting to consider the following example, according to the Minister of State (Independent Charge) for Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSME), 'The Ministry of MSME is operating various programmes and schemes for promoting eco- friendly technology and processes for micro, small and medium enterprises.'

The schemes for technology up gradation including eco/environment-friendly technology and modernization of micro and small enterprises were Credit Linked Capital Subsidy Scheme (CLCSS), Promotion of Vertical Shaft Brick Kiln (VSBK) and Technology and Quality Up gradation Support to MSMEs under National Manufacturing Competitiveness Programme (NMCP).Credit Linked Capital Subsidy Scheme (CLCSS) is facilitating technology upgradation of micro and small enterprises by providing capital subsidy for induction of well-established and improved technology. During the year 2007-08, subsidy amounting to the tune of,Rs 76.3 crore, in the year 2008~09, subsidy to the tune of'Rs 108.8 crore, and in the year 2009-10, subsidy amounting to the tune of,Rs 150.4 crore was disbursed to the Nodal agencies under Credit Link Capital Subsidy Scheme.

UNIT 5

ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT AND CHALLENGES FOR THE FUTURE

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Environment management is not, as the phrase could suggest, the management of the environment as such, but rather the management of interaction by the modem human societies with, and impact upon the environment. The three main issues that affect managers are those involving politics (networking), programs (projects) and resources (money, facilities, etc.). The need for environmental management can be viewed from a variety of perspectives.
In this unit, you will be familiarized with the process of environment impact assessment, environment accounting and audit and the environment management systems. You will learn about the EMS standards in detail along with ISO 14000. The unit will also discuss the international initiatives for the management of the environment and the international treaties on environment. The unit will also discuss the WTO provisions and finally the issues and challenges for environment management in the globalized world.

5.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT STUDIES AND ASSESSMENT

An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an assessment of the possible impact¬ positive or negative-that a proposed project may have on the environment, consisting of the natural, social and economic aspects.

The impact of anthropogenic activities on the use of environmental resources or the natural environment is termed as environmental impact. The assessments or evaluations of this impact are collectively called environmental impact assessment (EIA).
EIA is required to understand the detrimental environmental changes like the degradation of environment, ecological imbalance, etc., and take proper measures to make the earth environmentally sound for our existence.

The ultimate objective of EIA is to provide information to the decision-makers so that proper programmes and plans can be made, and new projects can be implemented. The ElA is very important as its results helps to implement appropriate procedures or measures in various countries keeping in view their national laws and processes related to decision-making, exchange of information and consultation.

The steps involved in EIA study are as follows:

(i) Screening of the project

(ii) Projects that need EIA or do not need it are identified.

(ii) Impact identification of the project

The significant impact of the project is identified and if required, alternatives are suggested.

(ill) Impact prediction

The magnitude and duration of the impacts on the environment are predicted through various models, laboratory experiments and judgement by experts.

(iv) Impact evaluation

The impacts so predicted are scientifically evaluated by comparing the values against set standards.

(v) Participation of stakeholders

For improving quality, comprehensiveness and effectiveness, stakeholders' opinions are considered adequately.

(vi) Specification of monitoring and auditing measures

Impacts that require continuous monitoring are identified and their auditing is undertaken.

(vii) Documentation of EIA study

Draft record along with non-technical summary containing the methodology, number of steps involved, results and discussions, interpretations and conclusions are prepared.

(viii) Review of report

Drawn up reports are reviewed by experts to evaluate the efficiency and quality of the EIA. Suggestions are made by the experts. If some items are missing, they are modified as required or accepted by the reviewers in order to facilitate the process of decision¬ making.

(ix) Decision-making

In the end, decision-makers decide the future prospects of the proposed project based on the comments and recommendations of the reviewers through the EIA report.

5.3 ENVIRONMENTAL ACCOUNTING AND AUDIT

5.3.1 Environmental Accounting

Environmental accounting is an important tool for understanding the role played by the natural environment in the economy. Environmental accounts provide data which highlight both the contribution of natural resources to economic well-being and the costs imposed by pollution or resource degradation. For this reason, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has launched a new program, the Green Accounting Initiative, to help its members understand how this tool can help them improve environmental management. Therefore, environmental accounting is sometimes referred to as 'green accounting', 'resource accounting' or 'integrated economic and environmental accounting'. All of these refer to modification of the System of National Accounts to incorporate the use or depletion of natural resources.

The System of National Accounts (SNA) is the set of accounts which national governments compile routinely to track the activity of their economies. SNA data are used to calculate major economic indicators including Gross Domestic Product (GDP), Gross National Product (GNP), savings rates, and trade balance figures. The data underlying these aggregate indicators are also used for a wide range of less publicized, but equally valuable policy analysis and economic monitoring purposes. These economic accounts are calculated by all countries in a standard format, using a framework developed, supported, and disseminated by the United Nations Statistical Division (UNSTAT). The fact that all countries make these calculations in more or less the same way is crucial to the value of the data for national and international decision making, because it makes international comparisons possible and thus allows us to place individual countries in the context of world trends. Similarly, the fact that the accounts are calculated routinely, rather than just once, lets us use them to understand how the world is evolving, and where each country fits within that pattern of change. This provides a valuable basis for defining public policies designed to move individual countries and the world towards desired patterns of growth and development.

Drawbacks of System of National Accounts

The movement to reform the SNA has arisen because the accounts as now defined do not include the full economic value of environmental resources or the role which they play in productive activity. Some of the elements missing from the accounts include the following:
Environmental expenditures: Expenditures to protect the environment from harm, or to mitigate that harm, cannot be identified from the data in the accounts. Such expenditures include the costs incurred to prevent environmental harm, such as pollution control equipment purchased by factories or catalytic converters in cars. They also include the costs of remedying that harm; medical expenses, replacement of property destroyed in landslides caused by deforestation, or drinking water filtration required because intake water is highly regimented. These expenditures are already included in the income accounts, along with all other intermediate or [mal consumption. However, they cannot be disaggregated to highlight the costs incurred to prevent or mitigate environmental degradation.

. Non-marketed goods: The environment provides many goods which are not sold, but which are nevertheless of value; e.g., fuel wood and building materials gathered in forests, meat and fish captured for consumption, and medicinal plants. Some countries do include these in their national income accounts, estimating total consumption, and then using market prices for comparable products as a proxy to calculate the value of non-marketed goods. However, such estimation is incomplete, and cannot always be disaggregated from products which are sold.

. Non-marketed services: Similarly, the environment provides unsold services, such as Watershed protection by forests or water alterations by submerged vegetation. These are not included in the SNA. It can be very difficult to estimate their economic value; this is sometimes done by calculating the cost of obtaining equivalent services from the market.

. Consumption of natural capital: The SNA treats the gradual depletion of physical capital-machines and other equipment-as depletion rather than income, in accordance with conventional business accounting principles. However, the depletion of natural capital-forests, in particular-is accounted for as income. Thus the accounts of a country which harvests trees very quickly will show quite high income for a few years, but nothing will show the destruction of a productive asset, the forest. Most experts on environmental accounting agree that the depletion of natural capital should be accounted for in the same way as other productive assets.

What is environmental accounting?

Environmental accounting is a set of aggregate national data linking the environment to the economy, which will have a long-run impact on both economic and environmental policy-making. It is not a valuation of environmental goods or services, social cost¬ benefit analysis of projects affecting the environment, or disaggregated regional or local data about the environment. There are, however, close links between environmental accounting and these three activities, which is why they are frequently discussed together and occasionally confused. It can be summarized as follows:

. Valuation of environmental assets, goods, or services: Valuation refers to the process of deriving a monetary value for things which are not sold in a market; for example, biodiversity resources which could provide new medicines in the future. Valuation is an essential input into both social cost-benefit analysis and some approaches to environmental accounting. However, valuation is only one element in the construction of environmental accounts; it is not the same as the construction of the accounts.

. Social cost-benefit analysis: Social cost-benefit analysis tallies up all of the costs and benefits of a proposed project, including its impacts on environmental quality or on the availability of environmental goods and services. It relies on the same valuation data that may be used in environmental accounting, though the different estimated values are aggregated differently. Thus the valuation work entailed in implementing environmental accounts may also provide data for analyzing the impacts of specific projects.

. Disaggregated regional or local data about the environment: It is sometimes linked to a geographic information system. Questions often arise about the scale of environmental data; do they pertain to a village, a province, a watershed, or the whole country? Because the SNA is national, and most countries maintain their economic data at the national (rather than the regional or local) level, environmental accounts are primarily national accounts. For example, they might tell us how much energy was consumed nationwide, not how much was consumed in each village or province. Sometimes national figures are obtained by aggregating local data, though; for example, national data timber harvests might originate with a survey of individual logging camps. Thus, accounts sometimes can provide local as well as national data. Where local data are not available, however, it is often easier to estimate national data directly than it is to collect local data and sum them. For this reason, the accounts will always provide national figures, but only sometimes will the data underlying them tell us about local areas as well.

In subsequent years, the focus of the accounting work will be determined by the outcome of the first cycle of accounts. It will be important routinely to update the accounts, so that they begin to present a record of how the economy-environment linkages are evolving over time. In addition, areas where environmental costs or impacts are found to be particularly large may warrant further work or additional primary data collection. Emerging policy concerns may be introduced into the accounting framework. Special studies may be undertaken on particular questions of policy importance.

5.3.2 Environmental Audit

Environmental audit is a review of activities affecting the environment to determine the status of ,-: corporation's compliance with central, state and local environmental laws and regulations. It also provides the corporation with data and other information on which environmental decision and planning could be based.

The environmental compliance audit can be company-wide and comprehensive, or it can be limited either to particular facilities owned by a corporation or to determining compliance with specific regulatory programmes. Whatever the audit's scope, the basic principles and considerations related to the conduct of an audit will remain the same.

An environmental audit is a management tool for taking inventory of a company's environmental assets and liabilities. As such, the audit provides information on a company's compliance status at a given point in time, analysis of the perceived implications of the information gathered and, if management so chooses, options that arise from this information and analysis. In short, an audit provides a snapshot of one segment of managements’ responsibility.

Responding to enforcement actions

Understanding a company's actual compliance status not only enables corporate management to take steps to avoid being the target of litigation, it also renders the company better prepared in the event of an enforcement action. When an action is brought, ready knowledge of the company's overall environmental situation may be a key element in responding. Without an orderly and usable reporting system and access to the broad data-base that the audit procedure provides, a period of chaos may ensue, disrupting the company's business activity and impairing its ability to assess its position.

The term 'snapshot' should not be misunderstood. While the data collected will focus on compliance status at a given point in time, an effective and useful audit must look back to past particles in some areas, e.g., waste management and should also identify potential liabilities arising from past or current practices. The audit should also establish the basis for continued reporting and making management systems to ensure rational, responsive decision-making in the future. To accomplish this, the audit should be designed to present information in a format that will allow efficient integration with subsequent compliance monitoring activities.

The audit itself does not necessarily entail development of management reporting systems or engineering drawings for construction of new pollution control equipment. Nor need it entail developing cost estimates for such construction or equipment. These actions may be appropriate management responses after completion of an initial audit.

Reasons to undertake an environmental audit

There could be a number of reasons for undertaking an audit and the benefits associated with the audit process are described below.

Determining compliance status

A fundamental reason for undertaking an environmental audit is to determine the status of a company's compliance with central, state, and local environmental laws and regulations. More than a decade of major environmental legislation regulating air and water pollution, chemicals, hazardous substances and waste disposal has imposed a complete scheme of obligations on business, industry and local bodies. Environmental compliance represents a significant aspect of doing business both, in terms of the effort and cost, necessary to achieve compliance and in terms of the fines, penalties and liabilities that may be incurred as a result of noncompliance.

Understanding the applicability and impact of environmental regulation has become necessary for informed corporate planning and decision making. The audit is a vehicle to help management identify environmental problems that could adversely affect an otherwise normal business activity, and avoid or minimize liability for cost. remedial work, fines or damage claims before enforcement actions are brought.

Where corporate management does not know of a problem until it becomes serious, of substantial duration, and difficult to clean up, enforcement actions, involving substantial sums, may result. Some cases involving substantial civil and criminal penalties have developed because of concealment of problems, sometimes, by lower¬ level employees, acting-usually erroneously-from the belief that management did , not want to hear the bad news. Possible enforcement actions can be avoided by an I environmental audit that identifies 'skeletons in the cupboard', thereby, enabling the company to take steps, in advance of government action, and to focus its efforts on I specific problem areas of plant operations.

An environmental audit can also help in maintaining a corporation's compliance status in an efficient and cost-effective manner. Frequently, facilities can be control technologies including equipment, and management practices may be available to

I control a particular waste or discharge. The capital and operating costs associated : with the different options may vary substantially. By identifying the applicable regulatory requirements, an environmental audit can assist the business manager in focusing on potential problems and selecting, in a timely and organized fashion, the most efficient and cost-effective approach. An audit can also help management recognize if there is a need for change in operating of administrative procedures to improve the company's system for compliance assurance and internal reporting.

I Crisis management

Information obtained in an audit can be of enormous value in crisis situations. Such information can help a company respond quickly to a spill or other release of a hazardous substance or to other pollution incidents the impacts of which may have been exaggerated by the press or others. Conversely, such information can help. companies avoid making claims or assertions that, upon further investigation, prove to be understatements by saying nothing, but this course may subject it to significant negative publicity. Generally, a far better approach is to understand one's compliance status from the beginning, and, thus, to be able to make informed, sensitive judgements about how to handle problems when they arise. It is absolutely essential in the environmental area to be prepared for emergencies. Failure to respond promptly and appropriately to a spill of a hazardous substance, for example, can result in loss of life, damage to property, contamination of drinking water, fire or explosion, or other injuries. Further, the costs of cleaning up a spill after it has been initially mismanaged can often be many times greater than the cost of initial containment and removal.

Planning and conducting the audit

An environmental compliance audit should be tailored to fit the company's circumstances and needs. Though each corporation is different, the basic elements of a successful audit are the same. These elements include the following:

. Defining the purpose and scope of the audit, resolving policy issues and establishing priorities

. Assigning departmental responsibility for the audit function and ensuring in¬ house cooperation

. Choosing the audit team

. Reviewing central, state and local laws and regulations to identify regulatory programmes applicable to company operations

. Selecting elements of analysis on which to base data collection

. Beginning the audit

. Preparing compliance profiles

. Conducting a site visit

. Analyzing and presenting the results of the audit. Evaluating the audit

Establishing the authority for the audit purpose, scope and policy issues

Before a company begins an environmental audit, its Board of Directors or senior management should issue a resolution or directive to initiate and legitimize the audit. This step is necessary to achieve the maximum level of cooperation from within the corporation. Such cooperation is essential in providing the information senior management needs to obtain a clear picture of the company's compliance status.

This directive should authorize the creation of the audit team and state clearly the nature and purpose of the audit as well as any limitations on the audit due to legal considerations or internal management policy.

Conducting the audit

Once the regulatory programmes, potentially applicable to company operations, have been identified and the elements on winch to base data collection and analysis have been selected the audit may begin. Collection of audit data should be organized into two stages: preliminary data collection prior to the site visit, and data collection at the site.

Preliminary data collection

The following three questions must be addressed in designing the preliminary data gathering process:

. Who should collect the information?

. How should it be collected?

. What basic information does the audit team need about the site to determine whether a specific audit element is subject to regulation?

5.4

ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGING SYSTEMS

Environmental impact is an important issue across the globe, with pressure to minimize that impact coming from many sources, including governments, trade associations, supply chains and other social and financial stakeholders. An Environmental Management System (EMS) provides with a framework for managing environmental responsibilities efficiently in a way that is integrated into your overall operations.

An environmental management system is relevant to all organizations, from single site to large multinationals and from high risk companies to low risk service organizations. Managing environmental impacts is relevant to manufacturing, process and service industries, including local and central governments, equipment manufacturers and suppliers.

Environmental management system (EMS) refers to the management of an organization's environmental programs in a comprehensive, systematic, planned and documented manner. It includes the organizational structure, planning and resources for developing, implementing and maintaining policy for environmental protection. The features of an environmental management system (EMS) are as follows:

. It serves as a tool to improve environmental performance.

. It provides a systematic way of managing an organization's environmental affairs.

. It is the aspect of the organization's overall management structure that addresses immediate and long-term impacts of its products, services and processes on the environment. .

. It gives order and consistency for organizations to address environmental concerns through the allocation of resources, assignment of responsibility and ongoing evaluation of practices, procedures and processes.

. It focuses on continual improvement of the system.

                                         EMS model

                                                          Policy

                                                                                 Management . planning

     Checking Corrective Action

                                                                                Implementation

Fig. 5.1 The EMS Model

An EMS follows a plan-do-check-act cycle (PDCA). Figure 5.1 shows the process of first developing an environmental policy, planning the EMS, and then implementing it. The process also includes checking the system and acting on it. The model is continuous because an EMS is a process of continual improvement in which an organization is constantly reviewing and revising the system.

This is a model that can be used by a wide range of organizations-from manufacturing facilities to service industries to government agencies. The key elements of an EMS are as follows:

. Policy statement: A statement of the organization's commitment to the environment.

. Identification of significant environmental impacts: Environmental attributes of products, activities and services and their effects on the environment.

. Development of objectives and targets: Environmental goals for the organization.

. Implementation: Plans to meet objectives and targets.

. Training: Instruction to ensure employees are aware and capable of fulfilling their environmental responsibilities.

. Management review.

5.4.1 EMS Standards

As with all management functions, effective management tools, standards and systems are required. An environmental management standard or system or protocol attempts to reduce environmental impact as measured by some objective criteria. The ISO

14001 standard is the most widely used standard for environmental risk management and is closely aligned to the European Eco-Management and Audit Scheme (EMAS). As a common auditing standard, the ISO 19011 standard explains how to combine this with quality management.

The ISO 14000 family addresses various aspects of environmental management. The very first two standards, ISO 14001:2004 and ISO 14004:2004 deal with environmental management systems (EMS). ISO 14001 :2004 provides the requirements for an EMS and ISO 14004:2004 gives general EMS guidelines.

The other standards and guidelines in the family address specific environmental aspects, including: labeling, performance evaluation, life cycle analysis, communication and auditing.

ISO, ISO 14000, and ISO 14001

ISO stands for the International Organization for Standardization, located in Geneva, Switzerland. ISO is a non-governmental organization established in 1947. The organization mainly functions to develop voluntary technical standards that aim at making the development, manufacture and supply of goods and services more efficient, safe and clean.

ISO 14000 refers to a family of voluntary standards and guidance documents to help organizations address environmental issues. Included in the family are standards for Environmental Management Systems, environmental and EMS auditing, environmental labeling, performance evaluation and life-cycle assessment.

In September 1996, the International Organization for Standardization published the first edition of ISO 14001, the Environmental Management Systems standard. This is an international voluntary standard describing specific requirements for an EMS. ISO 14001 is a specification standard to which an organization may receive certification or registration. ISO 14001 is considered the foundation document of the entire series. A second edition of ISO 14001 was published in 2004, updating the standard.

Development of ISO standards

All the ISO standards are developed through a voluntary, consensus-based approach. ISO has different member countries across the globe. Each member country develops its position on the standards and these positions are then negotiated with other member countries. Draft versions of the standards are sent out for formal written comment and each country casts its official vote on the drafts at the appropriate stage of the process. Within each country, various types of organizations can and do participate in the process. These organizations include industry, government (federal and state), and other interested parties, like various non-governmental organizations. F or example, EPA and States participated in the development of the ISO 14001 standard and are now evaluating its usefulness through a variety of pilot projects.

5.5 ISO 14000

The ISO 14000 series of standards are the first international standards on environmental management systems. The major objectives of these series is to promote more effective and efficient environmental management in organizations and to provide useful and usable tools which are effective, system based and flexible.

The subject matters covered under various ISO numbers are represented in Table 5.1.

ISO                                                                Number Range Subject Matter

ISO 14000-14009                                Environmental management systems

ISO 14010-14019                                 Environmental auditing

ISO 14020-14029                                 Environmental labelling

ISO 14030-14039                                Environmental performance evaluation

ISO 14040-14049                                Life cycle assessment

ISO 14050-14059                                Terms and definitions

ISO 14060                                           Environmental aspects in product standards
Table 5.1 Various ISO Numbers
ISO 14000 series of standards provides an opportunity for industrial or generations and enterprises in developing countries for transfer of technology to the developed as well as within the developing countries.

ISO 14000 series on environmental management systems admires the need of people from all sections of the society to protect the environment and the various requirements specified under ISO 14000 including the following:

(i) Environment policy

(ii) Planning

(iii) Implementation and operation

(iv) Checking and corrective measure

(v) Management review

The overall aim of the ISO 14000 environmental management standards is to protect the environment without ignoring the socio-economic needs.

ISO 14001

ISO 14001 is the standard of the ISO 14000 series. It is the reference framework of control of environmental management system (EMS). In the whole series of ISO 14000, various standards are set over supporting or guidance documents. ISO 14001 is the only standard in the whole series to which an organization/company registers for an EMS with an independent third party for evaluation and finally confirmation that the EMS of the organization company is in accordance with ISO 14001 specifications.

ISO 14001 explains the requirements specified under ISO 14000 giving details of what should be done but not on how it should be done. ISO 14001 standard is applicable to any organizations may be private enterprise, public enterprise, company, institution or a fill. The main objective of ISO 14001 is: (i) implementing, maintaining and improving an environmental management system; (ii) ensuring the specified environmental policy; (iii) demonstrating the confonnance of environmental policy adopted by a party to other parties through an independent, third party registrations or certification of its EMS or through self declaration or confonnance with the standard.

5.6 INTERNATIONAL INITIATIVES FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

5.6.1 International Treaties on Environment

Antarctica is deeply covered with ice with an average thickness of about 1800 metres. With increase in distance from the sea, the thickness of the ice increases and reaches up to about 4200 metres. The ice in this continent constitutes about 90 per cent of the world's fresh water reserve. The ice gradually moves outwards from the centre in the form of glaciers such as Lambort and Blardnoce glaciers. After reaching the plateau edge, the large masses of ice break off forming icebergs, also known as ice mountains; which are about 20-60 metres in height and from a few hundred metres to about 50 km in length.
Antarctica, the vast plateau-continent, along with many scattered groups of islands, has an area of about 14 million sq. km. It is assumed that Antarctica initially was a part of a single great landmass called Gondwanaland which also included Australia, South Aftica, SouthAmerica and the Indian subcontinent. About 200 million years ago, Gondwanaland began to break up and all the parts got scattered. Antarctica has an extremely long (about 30,000 km) coastline and is about 2000-2400 metres high. Since the continent is highly elevated, it is also known as the highest continent.

Antarctica is the driest, windiest and coldest of all the continents. It is almost always in fruition state and air is always very dry. Wind reaches here roughly at a speed of about 200 km per hour and frequent blizzards occur in autumn and winter. The average temperature nearer to the coast varies between 273K and 262K while the interior plateau has an average temperature of about 185K. In winter, the land remains in darkness and in summer the sun bathes the continent with the oblique rays during the daytime.

There are no living creatures including plants or trees in the interior of the Antarctica. Mosses and lichens in small numbers are found only in the coastal areas during the short summers. Small fishes, seeds and whales are found in the sea around the continent. There are birds like gulls, terns, petrels and the flightless penguins which live in rookeries in the coastal areas. Nature abounds in krills which are the prey of seals and whales. The krills, on the other hand, survive on microscopic plants called diatoms. The continent is a storehouse of minerals. It is a vast reserve of off¬shore oil and natural gas, coal, copper, gold, etc.

Different parts of Antarctica were claimed by seven countries, namely Argentina, Chile, France, United Kingdom, Norway, Australia and New Zealand. However, the Antarctic Treaty signed in 1959 froze all political claims. The Treaty which came into force in June 1961 granted that the continent would only be used for peaceful purposes. The later treaties, such as the Madrid Agreement in 1991, and the Protocol on Environmental Protection in 1998, strengthened the Antarctic Treaty further and imposed a ban on exploitation, prohibited future territorial claims and preserved itI only for non-military scientific research for all the countries in the world and declared the continent as a 'natural reserve'. There are about thirty-six odd permanent research stations in the Antarctica and the United States station on the Sofs Island can be termed as a town and has the only Jet airport of the continent. The population here is only that of the scientists of different scientific stations numbering 900 in winter, which rises to about 11,000 in summer due to arrival of tourists and personnels in the summer research sites. India has set up two manned research stations on Queen Maud in north-east Antarctica after her first expedition in 1982. The two research stations are Dakshin Gangotri and Maitri. The fourteen short articles of the treaty are summarized by Martin Glannere and can be given as follows:

Antarctica is to be used for peaceful purposes only; no military activities of any I kind are permitted, though rnilitary personnel and equipment may be used for scientific I purposes. Freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation shall continue and results of investigation shall be freely exchanged. No prior territorial claim is recognized, disputed or established and no new claims may be made while the Treaty is in force Nuclear explosions and disposing of radioactive wastes are prohibited.

The Basel Convention on minimizing hazardous wastes.

Industrialization has brought about modernization of lifestyle and its associated benefits. Health-giving medicines, labour-saving household appliances, automobiles and ships, paints and detergents, synthetic fibers and polythene packaging, personal computers and TV s-the list of useful manufactured goods is almost endless. But with the goods come the bad effects. Industrial production results in hundreds of millions of tonnes of wastes every year. These wastes include chemical by-products that are hazardous to human health and the environment because they are poisonous, eco-toxic, explosive, corrosive, flammable, or infectious. Too often these wastes pour out of smokestacks and outtake pipes or lie abandoned in dumps or leaky storage drums. Sometimes wastes are shipped off illegally to faraway places, exposing unsuspecting communities to terrible dangers. The cross-border transport of hazardous wastes caught the public attention in the late 1980s. The misadventures of 'toxic ships', such as the Karin B and the Pelicano, sailing from port to port trying to offload their poisonous cargoes, made front page headlines around the world. These tragic incidents were motivated in good part by tighter environmental regulations in the industrialized countries. As the costs of waste disposal skyrocketed, 'toxic traders' searching for cheaper solutions started shipping hazardous wastes to eastern Europe and Africa and other regions.

Once on shore, unwanted shipments are typically dumped indiscriminately, spilled accidentally or managed improperly, causing severe health problems--even death-and poisoning the land, water and air for decades or centuries. These criminal shipments must be stopped and their perpetrators brought to justice. But toxic ships are just a symptom of a much more fundamental problem. If the production of goods did not generate so much hazardous waste, if this waste were not so dangerous, if wealthier communities did not resist new treatment plants and dumps, and if the costs of detoxifying wastes were not so astronomical there would be less financial incentive to cheat and dump wastes illegally. .
Recognizing the gravity of the problem and understanding that the industrial society must fix this major flaw in their system, governments and many forward. looking companies started exploring solutions as early as the 1970s. By the 1980s, the international community launched treaty negotiations under the auspices of the United Nations Environment Programme. In March 1989, they adopted the Basel Convention on the Control of Trans boundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal. The treaty entered into force in 1992 and now boasts over 160 parties.

Drawing on the principles of environmentally sound management (ESM), the Convention seeks to protect human health and the environment from the dangers posed by hazardous wastes. This will require changing the economic equation for wastes in order to motivate the producers of hazardous wastes and people who benefit from the associated goods to take action. To do this, the Convention sets out a three. step strategy, the steps are as follows:

(i) Minimize the generation of wastes

(ii) Treat wastes as near as.possible to where they are generated (iii) Reduce international movements of hazardous wastes

Step one: Minimize the generation of hazardous wastes

The less waste there is to start with, the less money and work and risk is involved in cleaning it up. Cleaner production processes can lower costs for manufacturers while reducing damages to the environment. The most successful industries of the future will include those that become better and better at minimizing unwanted by-products and designing products with fewer hazardous components and become increasingly adept at recycling or reintegrating leftover materials back into the manufacturing cycle. The Basel Convention seeks to hurry this trend along.

All the efforts of the Basel Convention to push responsibility for treating wastes further up the supply chain are geared to promote environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes. ESM involves taking all practical steps to protect human health and the environment from hazardous wastes. In an ideal world, this would mean reducing the generation of hazardous wastes to zero. In practice, ESM means strictly controlling the storage, transport, treatment, reuse, recycling, recovery and final disposal of wastes that, despite best efforts to minimize their generation, occur nevertheless. Also dubbed as the 'integrated life-cycle approach', this strategy provides incentives to companies to monitor and control every step in their production processes, thereby gaining a more realistic understanding of the true costs of generating hazardous wastes. Many companies have already demonstrated that eliminating or reducing hazardous by-products can be both economically efficient and environmentally safe. Some are starting to internalize the costs of their waste generation. The United Nations Environment Programme is working closely with businesses to identify and disseminate 'best practices' as part of its efforts to promote the goals of the Basel Convention. The Convention seeks to encourage this kind of innovation by strengthening its partnerships with industry. The industry shares the responsibility for the wastes that are generated, and only industry has the tools, technologies and financial resources for minimizing these wastes, managing them better, and helping to destroy old stocks. It is time to engage the industry-especially those companies that are effectively tackling their own hazardous waste generation-more comprehensively in solving the global problem of hazardous waste. Leading companies can and are contributing a great deal to develop a vision, a strategy and a programme of action to deal with these issues. Consumers, of course, also have a vital role to play. One of the most critical aspects of ESM is lowering consumer demand for products and services that result in hazardous by-products. Consumers need to educate themselves about the methods used in the production processes and to think about what they buy every day. Everyone who consumes manufactured goods must consider himself or herself as part of the problem, and as a vital part of the solution.

Step two: Treat and dispose off hazardous wastes as close as possible to where they are generated

With the current production technologies, generating at least some hazardous wastes cannot be avoided. So, the preferred option for disposing off these wastes is to do so locally. Local disposal has two important benefits. First, it reduces the risks of accident or spillage during transport. Second, it ensures that the costs of hazardous wastes disposal are borne by the generators of these wastes. Faced with this truer cost equation, factory managers and workers and the communities they live in are more motivated to find safe and innovative solutions. Of course, local solutions are only possible if the necessary legislation and infrastructure are in place. Waste management facilities need to be of a high technological standard. Site operators must be highly qualified and trained. Monitoring must be sophisticated enough to detect any leaks or emissions above acceptable standards. Emergency procedures must be in place in the event of spills or other accidents. There must be safe storage facilities for residues from waste recovery or incineration.

To ensure that these technical requirements are in place, the parties to the Convention have produced a series of technical guidelines. These guidelines detail the environmentally sound management of organic solvents, waste oils, persistent organic pollutants, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), household wastes, clinical wastes, pneumatic tires, and other types of hazardous wastes. They also address disposal methods relevant to a range of wastes, notably specially engineered landfills, high temperature incineration, physicochemical and biological treatments. Together, the guidelines provide governments the tools and information they need to ensure environmentally safe management of hazardous wastes.

Plastics are an integral part of the modem economy and are used in automobiles and other consumer goods, buildings, containers, and numerous other products. Many countries manufacture plastic materials, and all countries import plastic products.

In some countries, plastics are disposed off through open, uncontrolled burning.and landfills. Open burning releases pollutants into the air-including in some cases cancer-causing furan and dioxins-that can cause various health problems for the nearby communities.

The Convention offers various guidelines for ensuring environmentally sound management of plastic wastes. The guidelines address a range of waste management issues, such as sorting for mechanical recycling, health and safety, shipping and transport, feedstock recycling, compaction, energy recovery and final disposal.

Lead-acid batteries offer another sort of challenge. Secondary lead is valuable and is therefore, recycled rather than sent for disposal. The safe recycling of lead-acid batteries-used in automobiles, industrial facilities and portable tools-requires strict environmental and occupational standards that can only be ensured by specialized firms, of which only a few are found in the developing countries. As a result, damaged batteries are often broken up manually. This is extremely dangerous to the workers. Inhaling dust, fumes or vapour dispersed in the workplace air can lead to acute lead poisoning. The more common problem, however, is chronic poisoning from absorbing low amounts of lead over long periods of time.

The technical guidelines of ESM on waste lead-acid batteries offer managers a set of best practices and principles for setting up effective systems for recycling batteries. They describe how to collect, transport and store used batteries; give specifications for the storage chambers and transport facilities; describe how batteries delivered to the recycling plant should be drained of their electrolytes, identified, segregated, and stored; explain how the recovered lead must be refined in order to remove unwanted contaminants; and address medical issues and public awareness. The guidelines conclude that the most effective approach to collection is to rely on the manufacturers, retailers, wholesalers and service stations to retain the old batteries at the time new ones are provided to the customer.

By improving the safety and effectiveness of the local treatment of hazardous wastes, the Basel Convention's technical guidelines will help reduce pressure for transporting these wastes elsewhere. Meanwhile, governments must also address the toxic wastes created by the unsafe procedures of the past. Old landfills and barrels stored in the developed and the developing countries alike continue to contaminate ground water, soil and human health.

It will take decades or centuries, and a huge amount of money and work, to rehabilitate these old sites (some cannot be cleaned up and must be cordoned off). The Convention operates a major worldwide programme for disposal of large quantities of obsolete pesticide stocks and to prevent any further accumulation.

Step three: Minimize international movement of hazardous wastes

The Basel Convention seeks to minimize the movement of waste materials across international borders through an agreed regime of rules and procedures. This regime starts by rigorously identifying the types of wastes that are considered hazardous and are thus subject to the rules of trans-boundary movement.

The Convention currently addresses twenty-seven specific categories of waste and eighteen waste streams that make hundreds of waste materials. This List A wastes exhibit one or more carefully defined hazardous characteristics. Radioactive wastes and wastes from normal ship operations are excluded because they are covered by other international agreements. A second list, List B, contains wastes that are normally considered to be non-hazardous.

Drawing up these lists is not as easy as it might seem. National definitions vary, some chemicals are hazardous in some circumstances and sometimes not, and may contain only very small amounts of toxic chemicals.

The Convention requires every company or broker wishing to export hazardous wastes to ask the Government of the exporting state to provide prior written notification to the competent authorities in the state of import and in the transit States. The importing and the transit States must then give prior written consent before any export can take place.

Each approved shipment must be accompanied by a 'movement document' with a detailed description of the contents and their disposal requirements, from the point at which the export begins to the point of disposal. Hazardous waste shipments made without such documents are illegal. Thanks to the Basel Convention, legal cross ¬border movements of hazardous wastes are now fully transparent for all involved and are better justified from the point of view of environmental safety and economic efficiency.

Some hazardous wastes must be treated using highly sophisticated technologies, and shipping them to high-tech plants that have invested in equipment designed to detoxify specific substances can make sense, as not every country can afford to build and maintain specialized plants for every substance. Other wastes are sent to recycling plants in countries where the market demand for that material is sufficiently high to ensure proper recycling. Of course, unscrupulous traders still try to bypass the Convention system now and then. Some try to trick customs officers by diluting hazardous wastes or deliberately mixing them with non-hazardous wastes. And every once in a while a toxic ship can still be seen wandering the seas looking for a port it can enter through trickery or bribery, or for a discrete opportunity to dump its cargo in the open ocean. The Convention, therefore, provides guidance on how to draft and implement national legislation to prevent and punish illegal traffic. When a shipment is judged to be illegal as a result of the exporter's or generator's conduct, the state of export must ensure that the wastes are taken back, or if this is no longer practical, disposed off in an environmentally sound manner. If the illegality results from actions taken by the state of import, that state becomes responsible for ensuring that the wastes are disposed off in an environmentally sound manner by the importer, disposer or by the government itself. In cases where responsibility cannot be assigned, the States concerned, perhaps with the help of others, must cooperate on finding an environmentally sound solution.

In 1995, the parties to the Convention gave the developing countries yet another tool for protecting themselves against unwanted imports of hazardous wastes. Under the so-called Ban Amendment, the countries listed in Annex VII (EU and OECD members, plus Liechtenstein) shall not export hazardous wastes intended for recovery, recycling or final disposal to countries not listed in Annex VII. The ban reflects the concern that many countries not listed in Annex VII lack the financial, technical, legal, and institutional capacity for monitoring trans-boundary movements, managing these wastes in an environmentally sound way and preventing illegal imports. The Ban Amendment, however, has not yet entered into force.

Yet another tool was developed four years later, when the parties adopted the Protocol on Liability and Compensation for damage resulting from the trans-boundary movement of hazardous wastes and their disposal. The Protocol describes how to determine liability and to ensure adequate and prompt compensation for any damage in the event of an accidental spill from a legal shipment or dumping by an illegal

trader. It considers each phase of a trans-boundary movement, from the generation of wastes to their export, international transit, import, and final disposal. It also established an emergency fund, financed with an initial US $500,000, that promises to finance immediate action in the event of an emergency, allowing more time to establish liability. In December 2002, the sixth meeting of the Conference of the Parties established a mechanism to promote the identification, as early as possible, of implementation and compliance difficulties encountered by the parties (e.g., in dealing with illegal traffic, meeting reporting obligations, etc.), and to recommend solutions to these difficulties. A Compliance Committee, consisting of fifteen members drawn in equal numbers from the five regional groups of the UN, was established to administer this facilitative mechanism.

The Committee can receive and consider submissions from the parties (about their own or other parties' inability to comply with or implement the provisions of the Convention) and the Secretariat. The Committee can also review the general issues of compliance and implementation as directed by the Conference of the Parties.

At the seventh meeting of the Conference of the Parties in 2004, the Compliance Committee was directed to consider the identification and analysis of difficulties relating to reporting obligations, designation and functioning of the national competent authorities and focal points, and the development of a national legislation to effectively implement the Basel Convention under its general review powers.

Taken together, the various tools and procedures all seek to ensure that trade is no longer a cheap and an easy outlet that countries can use to avoid addressing their domestic hazardous waste problems. They have enabled the Basel Convention to achieve during its first ten years of existence its aim of reducing transboundary movements of hazardous wastes, in particular, for final disposal. The next ten years

Today, the problem of hazardous waste is a global problem that requires not only local and regional, but also global solutions. The Basel Convention promotes these solutions through the exchange of ideas and technologies. It distributes publications that describe ESM. In addition to the various technical guidelines, a manual entitled Model National Legislation for the Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes advises governments on how to establish an effective regulatory system containing the necessary legal and administrative measures. The Manualfar the Implementation of the Convention describes the process for agreeing to and then overseeing the imports and exports of hazardous wastes.

The implementation of the convention is also promoted through a network of fourteen regional centres for training and technology transfer. The centres provide practical and hands-on support on technical, technological and enforcement issues. They also offer training, disseminate information, and promote public awareness. Another resource available to governments is the Convention's Secretariat. The Secretariat works in collaboration with the national authorities on developing national legislation, setting up inventories of hazardous wastes, strengthening national institutions, assessing the hazardous waste management situation, preparing hazardous waste management plans and policy tools, and strengthening enforcement efforts. In case of a hazardous waste spill or other emergency, the Secretariat contacts governments and international organizations that can assist rapidly with expertise and equipment.

With this inftastructure in place, plus the control system and agreements described earlier, the parties to the Basel Convention are now focusing on the full implementation and enforcement of their treaty commitments. Over the coming decade, governments will further minimize unnecessary movements of hazardous and other wastes, prevent and monitor illegal traffic, promote the transfer of safe and well. tested waste management technologies and improve the institutional and technical capabilities of the developing countries and countries with economies in transition. They will collaborate with the industry and the civil society to seek new solutions for minimizing the generation of wastes.

The parties to the Convention will also have greater collaboration and synergies with other organizations and sister conventions dealing with toxic chemicals. In addition to the Basel Convention, two major United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) conventions tackle key aspects of the chemicals lifecycle. The Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants seeks to reduce and eliminate the release of a particularly dangerous group of chemicals that persist in the environment and bio accumulate in people and animals. The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in international Trade helps governments to decide whether or not to accept imports of certain hazardous chemicals and to refuse imports if they decide that they cannot safely manage them.

At the seventh meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Basel Convention, the parties shared concerns regarding the unprecedented increase in the hazardous wastes and the challenges to manage these wastes in an environmentally sound manner. As a consequence, the parties adopted the Ministerial Statement on Partnerships forMeeting the Global Waste Challenge, which builds upon the Basel Declaration and ~ the Strategic Plan of the Basel Convention. The statement sets four priority policy I directions for the future: (i) the regional approach, (ii) waste minimization,

I (iii) integrated waste management, and (iv) the life cycle approach. The ultimate goal of activities resulting from this statement is to make the environmentally sound management of hazardous wastes and other wastes a reality on the ground. However, much more needs to be done. The development and transfer of cleaner technologies and processes must be accelerated. Without a dramatic increase in such technologies in the next ten to twenty years, the generation of hazardous wastes by an expanding global economy could reach unmanageable dimensions. Only by giving the issue a higher profile on the international agenda can governments ensure that action under the Basel Convention wi11lead to an environmentally sustainable future tree from the dangers of hazardous wastes.

Convention on Biological Diversity

Biological divinity is the variety and variability among living organisms and the ecological compels in which they occur.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty adopted in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992 with the following three main objectives: (i) Conservation of biodiversity (ii) Sustainable use of the components arising from it, and (iii) Sharing of benefits of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way.

The Convention was signed at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 by 154 countries and entered into force on 29 December 1993.

It is understood that biological diversity (the ecosystem, species and genes) is 'a common concern of human kind' and is an integral part of the developing process. The Convention links traditional conservation efforts to the economic goal of using biological resources in a sustainable manner. The Convention also deals with the 'Cartagena protocol on biosafety'.
It reminds the decision-makers (governments, private organizations) that natural resources are not infinite and can be exploited for the benefits of human at a rate that does not lead to the long-term decline of biodiversity. Substantial investments are therefore required to conserve biodiversity and which inturn will bring about substantial environmental, economic and social benefits.

Issues dealt with in the Convention

Some of the issues dealt with in the Convention include:

1. Measures and incentives for the conservation and sustainable use of bio¬diversity

2. Fair and equitable ways of sharing results of research and development and the benefits arising from commercial as well as other utilization of genetic resources

3. Access to and transfer of technology including biotechnology to government as well as to local communities

4. Scientific and technical cooperation

5. Provision of financial resources

6. Education and public awareness

7. Impact assessment and implement treaty commitments

The Cartagena Protocol: The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (Biosafety Protocol) was adopted in January 2000 and entered into force on 11 September 200l The main aim of the Protocol was to protect biodiversity from potential risks posed by living modified organisms which is the gift of modem biotechnology.

Global strategy for plant conservation: The recommendation of Gran Canaria Declaration calling for a global plant conservation strategy was adopted by the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity and a sixteen point plan with an aim to slow down the rate of plant extinction by 20 I 0 around the world was implemented.

For an effective way of implementation of the issues under the Convention, an international body was established accordingly. The governing body of the convention is the Conference of the Parties (COP), consisting of all the governments that have ratified the treaty (the US has signed the treaty but not ratified). The COP reviews progress under the convention, identifies new priorities, sets work plans for members and if necessary, makes amendments to the convention, creates expert advisory bodies, review progress reports by any of the member nations and .aborates with other international organizations.

The two main organs of this international body are the Secretariat and Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice (SBSTTA).

The CBD secretariat is based in Montreal and operates under the United Nations Environment Programme. The main functions are to organize meetings, draft documents, assist in implementation of programmes, co-ordinate with other international organizations.

The SBSTTA is a committee composed of experts from the member governments competent in their respective fields. The key role of such committee is to make recommendations to the COP on scientific and technical issues.

Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas

The Convention on Fishing and Conservation of Living Resources of the High Seas is an agreement designed to solve problems involved in the conservation of living resources of the high seas through international cooperation. The Agreement was highly essential because of technological development. Some of these resources are in danger of being overexploited.

The Agreement was signed on 29 April 1958 and come into force on 20 March 1966. There are thirty-eight countries that have signed the Agreement and ratified and twenty countries have signed the Agreement but not yet ratified. To meet the need for food of the world's expanding population, man has developed new technologies to exploit the living resources of the sea and consequently, has exposed some of these resources to the danger of being overexploited. The overexploitation must be stopped for the benefit of mankind and hence must be solved, whenever possible, on the basis of international cooperation through concerted action of all the countries in the world. The Agreement that was signed is in the form of Articles and the salient features are described below.

. Article 1: All States have the right for their nations to engage in fishing on the high seas, subject (i) to their treaty obligations; (ii) to the interests and right of coastal States involved.

. Article 2: The measures render possible the optimum sustainable yield from those resources so as to secure a maximum supply of food and other marine products.

. Article 3: A state whose nationals are engaged in fishing any stock of fish or other living resources in any area of the high seas where nationals of other States are not engaged, must take measures in that area when necessary for conservation of the living resources affected.

. Article 4: If the nationals of two or more States are engaged in fishing any stock of fish or other living marine resources, these States shall, enter into negotiations by way of agreement and take measures for the conservation of the living resources affected.

. Article 5: If the States do not accept measures as referred in Articles 3 and 4 and if no agreement can be reached within twelve months, any party may initiate the procedure contemplated by Article 9 and the measures adopted shall remain obligatory pending the decision of the special commission.

. Article 6: A state whose nationals are engaged in fishing in any area of the high seas adjacent to the territorial sea of a state shall, at the request of that coastal state, enter into negotiations with a view to prescribing by agreement the measures necessary for the conservation of the living resources of the high seas in that area.

. Article 7: Any coastal state may, with a view to the maintenance of the productivity of the living resources of the sea, adopt unilateral measures of

conservation appropriate to any stock of fish or other marine resources in any area of the high seas adjacent to its territorial sea, provided that negotiations to that effect with the other States concerned have not led to an agreement within six months.

. Article 8: Any state which, even if its nationals are not engaged in fishing in an area of the high seas not adjacent to its coast, has a special interest in the conservation of the living resources of the high seas in that area, may request the state or States whose nationals are engaged in fishing there to take the necessary measures of conservation under Articles 3 and 4 respectively, at the same time mention the scientific reasons which in its opinion make such measures necessary, and indicate its special interest.

. Article 9: Any dispute which may arise between States under Articles 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 shall, at the request of any of the parties, be submitted for settlement to a special commission office members, unless the parties agree to seek a solution by another method of peaceful settlement, as provided for in Article 33 of the Charter of the United Nations.

. Article 10: In case of the prescribed disputes under Articles 4, 5 6 and 8, the special commission shall apply the criteria according to the issues involved in the dispute, such as scientific basis of conservation measures, the practicability of measures.

. Article 11: The decisions of the special commission shall be binding on the States concerned and the provisions of paragraph 2 of Article 94 of the Charter of the United Nations shall be applicable to those decisions.

. Article 12: If the factual basis of the award of the special commission is altered by substantial changes in the conditions of the stocks of find and other living marine resources or in methods of fishing, the States concerned may request the other States to enter into negotiations for modifications in the measures of conservation.

. Article 13: The regulation of fisheries conducted by equipment embedded in the floor of the sea adjacent to the territorial sea of a state may be undertaken by the concerned state where fisheries have been maintained and conducted by its nationals, provided the non-nationals are also permitted to do so except in areas where such fisheries have enjoyed fishing for a long time.

. Article 14: In Articles 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 8, the terms 'nationals' means fishing boats or craft of any size having the nationality of the state concerned, according to the law of that state, irrespective of the nationality of the members of their crews.

. Article 15: This Convention shall, until 31 October 1958, be open for signature by all States' members of the United Nations or of any of the specialized agencies, and by any Other state invited by the General Assembly of the United Nations to become a Party to the Convention.

. Article 16: This Convention is subject to ratification. The instruments of ratification shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

. Article 17: This Convention shall be open for accession by any States' belonging to any of the categories mentioned in Article 15. The instruments

of accession shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

. Article 18: This Convention shall come into force on the 30th day following the date of deposit of the twenty-second instrument of ratification or accession with the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

. Article 19: At the time of signature, ratification or accession, any state may make reservations to articles of the Convention other than to Articles 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12.

. Article 20: After the expiration of a period of five years from the date on which this Convention shall enter into force, a request for the revision of this Convention may be made at any time by any contracting party by means of a notification in writing addressed to the Secretary-General of the United Nations.

. Article 21: The Secretary-General of the United Nations shall inform all the States' members of the United Nations and the other States referred to in Article 15:

(i) Of signatures to this Convention and of the deposit of instruments of ratification or accession, in accordance with Articles 15, 16 and 17;

(ii) Of the date on which this Convention will come into force, in accordance with Article 18;

(iii) Of requests for revision in accordance with Article 20;

(iv) Of reservations to this Convention, in accordance with Article 19.

. Article 22: The original of this Convention, of which the Chinese, English, French, Russian, and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall be deposited with the Secretary-General of the United Nations, who shall send certified copies thereof to all States referred to in Article 15.

5.6.2 International Organizations and their Effects

Greenpeace International is a non-governmental organization for the protection and conservation of environment. Greenpeace International uses direct action, lobbying and research to achieve its goals. Greenpeace International has 2.8 million supporters worldwide. It has national as well as regional offices in forty-one countries.

Origin of Greenpeace International

Greenpeace International originated from the formation of the Don't Make a Wave Committee by a group of Canadian and American expatriate peace activists in Vancouver in 1971. Taking its name from a slogan used during their protests against the United States' nuclear testing in late 1969, the Committee came together with the objective of stopping a second underground nuclear bomb test code, named Cannikin by the United States military beneath the island of Amchitka in Alaska. The test could not be stopped, but the organization of the Committee laid the groundwork for Greenpeace International International's later activities. In 1972, following the departure of one of the early pioneers, Dorothy Stowe, from the chairmanship of the Don't Make a Wave Committee, the fledgling environmental group officially changed its name to Greenpeace Foundation. The focus of the organization later turned from anti-nuclear protest to other environmental issues: whaling, bottom trawling, global warming, old growth, nuclear power, and genetically-modified organisms.

The mission of this independent, global non-governmental organization is to change attitudes and behaviour, to protect and conserve the environment and to promote peace by the following: Catalysing an energy revolution to address the most important threat faced by earth, i.e., climate change.

. Defending the oceans of the earth by challenging wasteful and destructive fishing, and creating a global network of marine reserves.
Protecting the world's remaining ancient forests on which many animals, plants and people are dependent.

. Working for disarmament and peace by reducing dependence on finite resources and calling for the elimination of all nuclear weapons.

. Creating a toxic free future with safer alternatives to hazardous chemicals in products and their manufacturing.

. Campaigning for sustainable agriculture by encouraging socially and ecologically responsible farming practices.

The organization actively addresses many environmental issues by running campaigns, with their primary focus on efforts to stop global warming and to preserve the biodiversity of the world's oceans and ancient forests. In addition to the more conventional methods of environmental organizations, such as lobbying with the politicians and attending international conferences, Greenpeace International has a stated methodology of engaging in non-violent direct action. Greenpeace International uses direct action to attract attention to particular environmental causes, whether by placing themselves between the whaler's harpoon and their prey, or by invading nuclear facilities dressed as barrels of radioactive waste. Some of Green peace International's most notable successes include the ending of atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, a (purportedly) permanent moratorium on international commercial whaling, and the declaration of Antarctica as a global park by the Antarctic Treaty, forbidding possession by individual nations or commercial interests. To back up this latter point, World Park I Base was established in the Antarctica, and ran for five years, from 1987 to 1992.

Following are some of the positive environmental changes that Greenpeace International has directly brought about since they began campaigning in 1971.

In 1987, with the launch of a monthly newsletter called Powerline produced jointly by Greenpeace International and the Friends of the Earth provided the city investors and analysts with a wealth of new information on potential liability issues surrounding nuclear power stations. It was so astoundingly successful that the UK government dropped their plans for privatization oft he nuclear industry.

In November 2004, Greenpeace International launched a campaign against the Kimberly-Clark Corporation because its tissue products, including the popular Kleenex brand, have been linked to the destruction of ancient boreal forests. Greenpear,e International charged Kimberly-Clark for using more than 2.5 million tonnes of virgin pulp from the boreal forests to produce its tissue products, including the Kleenex brand. The Corporation purchases pulp from companies that do clear cutting operations in the ancient forests in Ontario and Alberta in Canada. The forests have existed for over 10,000 years-since the 'last ice age'-and are home to endangered wildlife, such as woodland caribou and wolverine. As part of its international 'Kleercut' campaign, Greenpeace has been educating consumers about the links between Kleenex tissue products and ancient forests, moving shareholders to put pressure on Kimberly. Clark and motivating customers to switch to more environment-friendly tissue product manufacturers.

In February 2009, electronics giant Philips bowed to pressure nom Greenpeace International and consumers and became a leader in environment-friendly take-back policies for electronic waste. Then again in February, following a six-month long Quit Coal campaign by Greenpeace International, the Greek Minister of Development stated that the government was not considering coal or nuclear power as part of Greece's energy future. Instead, the Greek government has made its long-term energy plan to exclude coal and promote renewable energy and energy efficiency.

Recent activities of Greenpeace International 2

1. Greenpeace International blocks whalers from refuelling in Southern

Ocean Whale Sanctuary

22 January 2008

On the eleventh day of successfully preventing the Japanese whaling fleet from killing whales in the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary, Greenpeace

International's activists today, from the Greenpeace International ship Esperanza, blocked the fleet's factory ship Nisshin Maru from being refuelled in the Antarctic waters by the Panamanian registered vessel Oriental Bluebird. In a non-violent protest against the whaling fleet's activities in the Southern Ocean, the activists placed their inflatable boat between the factory ship and refuelling vessel, thus preventing them from coming alongside to refuel. In a statement radioed to the Oriental Bluebird, in Japanese, Spanish and English, Japan whales campaigner Sakyo Noda said, 'The Oriental Bluebird must leave the Antarctic waters immediately: your presence here is unwanted and a threat to the pristine Antarctic environment which has been declared a particularly sensitive sea area by the International Maritime Organization and a natural reserve, devoted to peace and science by the Environmental Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty'.

2. Greenpeace International calls on the International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) to do more to end tropical forest destruction

7 May 2007

Greenpeace International's activists today abseiled from the top of the Crowne Plaza hotel in downtown Port Moresby, where delegates were gathering for the start of the 42nd committee meeting of the International Tropical Timber Organization, and unfurled a banner which read' lITO Stop Forest Destruction' . Dutch climber Erik Birkhoff said, 'Greenpeace wants lITO to do more to stop forest destruction in the world's tropical forests.' The protection of large expanses of rainforest has become a global issue and was identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) as one of the most cost¬ effective ways to mitigate climate change. Greenpeace International is highlighting the issue of destruction of tropical forests as representatives from governments meet at the 42nd ITTO meeting in Port Moresby, Papua New Guinea, a country with serious illegal and destructive logging issues, to challenge ITTO's members to protect rather than trade away the planet's last ancient forests.

3. Greenpeace International launches first public pirate fishing vessel 'list of shame' and demands governments trans

9 March 2007

Greenpeace International came out with the first global database of black listed , illegal fishing vessels, in an attempt to tackle the problem of illegal, unregulated and unreported (IUD) fishing, a US $9 billion rogue industry which is destroying the fish stocks and biodiversity in certain ecologically important areas of the oceans of the world. The Greenpeace International database (http:// oceans.greenpeace.org/blacklist), launched at the meeting of the committee on Fisheries of the Food and Agriculture Organizations (FAO) in Rome, aims at publicly identifying the vessels engaged in the so-called 'pirate fishing' and exposing the lack of action by the authorities from preventing the illegal trade. Greenpeace International also released a report showing that governmental attempts to curb pirate fishing through voluntary measures did not have much significant effect on the levels of illegal fishing in some of the most desperate areas of action in the world, particularly the west coast of Africa. 'The fact that Greenpeace International has to publish a global database of blacklisted illegal fishing vessels demonstrates clearly just how little concrete action States have taken to stop this pillage of our oceans,' said Sari Tolvanen of Greenpeace International.

4. Israel takes a significant step today towards becoming a solar leader 26 February 2007

Greenpeace International welcomed the announcement from the Ministry of Infrastructure that the proposed solar power plant in Eshalim, originally proposed in 2001, will finally be put out to tender to private contractors. Greenpeace Mediterranean has led the campaign for renewable energy power plants to be constructed in the region.

5. Massive police presence as activists occupy Monsanto GE facility

24 April 2006

Massive police presence as Greenpeace International, Jose Bove from Faucheurs Volontaires and Confederation Paysanne occupied Monsanto's seed facility in Trebes, France.

6. Greenpeace International protests environmental impact of world's longest oil pipeline

1 February 2006

Greenpeace International protested as Russia tried to muzzle its own experts on the environmental impact of its plan to build the world's longest oil pipeline, Greenpeace International's activists, today, held a protest at the headquarters of a Russian government agency, accusing it of trying to silence its own environmental experts who oppose their plan for the world's biggest oil pipeline, scheduled to be built through a World Heritage Site around Lake Baikal. Over 80 per cent of the experts, commissioned for assessing the environmental impact of building the 4,200 km pipe-line, rejected the proposal because of its proximity to one of the world's most fragile ecosystems, Lake Baikal-which has been declared a World Heritage Site since 1996. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) of the proposed pipeline was commissioned by Russia's Federal Service for Ecological, Technological and Atomic Supervision in November 2005.

7. Greenpeace International stops Clemenceau leaving European territory 12 January 2006

Greenpeace International's activists intercepted and boarded the French aircraft carrier, the Clemenceau, raising the stakes in the international row over the decommissioning of the Clemenceau, which has been sent to India for decommissioning despite widespread outrage at the high level of asbestos and I other hazardous materials it contains. This morning two activists boarded the carrier 50 nautical miles from the coast of Egypt in international waters.

8. Greenpeace International demands ship's return to France '

10 January 2006

The Indian Supreme Court Monitoring Committee (SCM C) branded the French naval aircraft carrier, the Clemenceau, which is being towed to India for scrapping, as an illegal transport due to the hazardous materials, including 500 tonnes of asbestos, on board.

9. North Atlantic: Destruction and fisheries mismanagement 12 August 2005

The Greenpeace International's ship, Esperanza, returned to Halifax today with evidence of deep-sea destruction by high seas bottom trawlers.

10. Greenpeace International: Sixty years after Hiroshima and Nagasaki

4 August 2005

On the eve of the 60th anniversary of the nuclear bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Greenpeace International renewed its call to world leaders to make real their decades-old commitments to nuclear disarmament and for the Japanese government to abandon their plans of producing nuclear weapons usable material. 10,000 'Wings of Peace' messages sent to Greenpeace International by people from 155 countries were attached to large dove-shaped balloons and flown in front of the Hiroshima Atomic Bomb Memorial to remember those more than 300,000 people who died in the atomic bombings. 'To honour those killed and to make sure what happened here in Hiroshima never happens again, we must work together to create peace,' said Kieran Longridge of Greenpeace International.

11. Greenpeace International closes world's largest coal port 27 July 2005

Greenpeace International's flagship, the Rainbow Warrior, closed down the world's largest coal export port in Newcastle today and called on Australia to quit coal and tackle climate change by moving to a clean energy economy. The Rainbow Warrior dropped anchor in the channel leading to the Kooragang and Carrington terminals in the Newcastle harbour.

12. Greenpeace International calls for nuclear-free NATO

16 April 2005

Greenpeace International will join with Bombspotting activists today to make 'citizen inspections' of three military facilities in Belgium in a symbolic action with the aim of pressurizing NATO member States to renounce their nuclear weapons arsenal. The inspections will take place at Kleine Brogel Airbase which houses nuclear weapons, NATO's Brussels headquarters and its SHAPE military headquarters in Mons/Bergen.

Friends of the Earth3

Friends of the Earth is the world's largest grassroots environmental network. It unites seventy-one different national member groups and some 5,000 local activist groups on every continent. With approximately 1.5 million members and supporters around the world, Friends of the Earth campaigns on the most important and urgent environmental and social issues of the present times. It challenges the current model of economic and corporate globalization, while promoting solutions that will help in creating environmentally sustainable and socially just societies. Friends of the Earth follow a decentralized and democratic structure that allows all member groups to participate in the decision-making process.

Mission

The following are the aims of Friends of the Earth:

. Protecting the earth against further deterioration and repairing damage inflicted upon the environment by human activities and negligence

. Preserving the ecological, cultural and ethnic diversity of the earth

. Increasing public participation and democratic decision-making, both of which are important for protecting the environment and sound management of the natural resources

. Achieving social, economic and political justice and equal access to resources and opportunities for men and women at the local, national, regional and international levels

. Promoting environmentally sustainable development at the local, national, regional and global levels

Activities of Friends of the Earth

Friends of the Earth works on various environmental and social issues. Through its programme on Climate Justice and Energy, it is are fighting for justice for the communities affected by climate change and promoting energy sovereignty, the right of the communities in choosing their own sources of sustainable energy. It also advocates a strong agreement within the framework of the UN negotiations, a just agreement on climate finance and an end to deforestation, one of the biggest causes of climate change.

The organization's Food Sovereignty Programme aims to stop the production of genetically modified organisms and corporate control over food. It fights for the right of the people to determine their own food systems.

The Forest and Biodiversity Programme of the Friends of the Earth campaigns against illegal logging and deforestation. It works with various communities and the local people to uphold their rights to manage their forests. It also exposes and opposes the negative impacts of monoculture plantations of crops, such as sugar cane, palm oil and soy for producing agrofuels.

Their programme, Economic Justice - Resisting Neoliberalism challenges the current economic model. It exposes and resists corporate power and the new Global Europe strategy and identifies and promotes initiatives that generate sustainable livelihood.

Climate justice and energy

The world today faces two related challenges that threaten the lives and livelihood of billions of people: climate change and global energy crisis. The main reason of these challenges is our unsustainable level of consumption, which requires huge quantities of energy for production and transportation.Solutions to these challenges lie in the right of different communities to choose their sources of sustainable energy and to develop a healthy consumption level. There is also a need for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and for all people to equally share resources within ecological limits. Friends of the Earth works for climate justice and energy access through proactive, community-based campaigns and projects.

Food sovereignty

Traditional food production systems like small-scale farming which aims to produce food grain for the local people, is now getting replaced by large-scale agriculture by transnational agribusiness. The climate crisis puts an additional threat on food production.

It is essential to build global food systems based on diverse, localized agricultural solutions. People should be allowed to determine and control their own food systems. This form of agriculture also helps communities to become more resilient to climate change. Friends of the Earth supports small-scale peasant farmers in resisting the corporate powers. The organization helps in building bridges between those who produce and those who consume food.

Forests and biodiversity

The forests of the world are in trouble. Privatization, increased exports and liberalization of international trade have led to a massive increase in large-scale plantations, which produce and export timber and pulp. This has also led to the increase in demand for exotic timber and crops, such as soy and palm.

All these pressures have led to the disappearance of half of the world's forests. These forests need to be protected as they provide livelihood to many local communities and indigenous people. Forests store carbon and regulate our climate and thus are crucial in our fight against climate change. They are also home to various species of animals and birds on earth. Friends of the Earth member groups work in association with the local communities to preserve forests and uphold their rights to manage forest resources and secure sustainable livelihood. It campaigns against industrial large-scale plantations, monoculture production and commercialization of forests and biodiversity.

Economic justice--Resisting neo-liberalism

Trade and investment, development funding and corporate lobbying are the drivers of the present economic model. This model is based on the belief that economic growth and liberalization will make the world a better place. While this has benefited large corporations, it excludes and even harms the most impoverished people while doing little to protect the environment. .

Friends of the Earth challenges the influential big corporations and questions the neoliberal policies of trade that do not take into account the general people's problems. The organization campaigns to change the course of the economy in a dynamic, creative and constructive way. It shares the inspiration and the positive experiences with old and new, just and sustainable development thinking and practices.

5.7 WTO PROVISIONS

A new WTO Secretariat report argues that international economic integration and growth reinforce the need for sound environmental policies at the national and international level. International cooperation is particularly important in addressing trans-boundary and global environmental challenges beyond the control of any individual nation. This would be true even if nations did not trade with one another.

The WTO Secretariat's Trade and Environment report, to be released on 14 October 1999, addresses the economic and political economy dimensions of the interface between trade and environment. The report argues that there is no basis for the sweeping generalizations that are often heard in the public debate, arguing that trade is either good for the environment, or bad for the environment. The real world linkages are a little bit of both, or a shade of grey.

'Every WTO Member Government supports open trade because it leads to higher living standards for working families, which in turn leads to a cleaner environment. This report underscores that trade and environment need not be contradictory, but can indeed be complementary' , said WTO Director-General, Mike Moore.

Among the questions the report seeks to answer are the following: is economic integration a threat to the environment? Does trade undermine the regulatory efforts of governments to control pollution and resource degradation? How can we ensure that economic growth driven by trade will help us to move towards a sustainable use of the world's environmental resources?

Some of the main findings of the report include the following:

. Most environmental problems result from polluting production processes, certain kinds of consumption, and the disposal of waste products - trade as such is rarely the root cause of environmental degradation, except for the pollution associated with transportation of goods;

. Environmental degradation occurs because producers and consumers are not always required to pay for the costs of their actions;

. Environmental degradation is sometimes accentuated by policy failures, including subsidies to polluting and resource-degrading activities – such as subsidies to agriculture, fishing and energy;

. Trade would unambiguously raise welfare if proper environmental policies were in place; . Trade barriers generally make for poor environmental policy; . Not all environmental standards should necessarily be harmonized across countries;

. The competiveness effects of environmental regulations are minor for most industries;

. A good environmental profile is often more of an asset for a firm than a liability in the international market-place, notwithstanding somewhat higher production costs;

. Little evidence bears out the claim that polluting industries tend to migrate from developed to developing countries to reduce environmental compliance costs;

. Yet, environmental measures are sometime defeated because of concerns

about competitiveness, suggesting a need for improved international cooperation on environmental issues;

. Economic growth, driven by trade, may be part of the solution to environmental degradation, but it is not sufficient by itself to improve environmental quality-higher incomes must be translated into higher environmental standards;

. And not all kinds of economic growth are equally benign for the environment;

. Public accountability and good governance are essential to good environmental policy, including at the international level;

. Effective international cooperation is essential to protect the environment, especially in respect of trans boundary and global environmental challenges.

. The cooperative model of the WTO, based on legal rights and obligations, could potentially serve as a model for a new global architecture of environmental cooperation.

Meanwhile, even within its current mandate, the WTO could do a few important things for the environment. The most obvious. contribution would be to address remaining trade barriers on environmental goods and services in order to reduce the costs of investing in clean production technologies and environmental management systems. Another contribution would be to seek reductions in government subsidies that harm the environment, including energy, agriculture and fishing subsidies.

5.8

ISSUES AND CHALLENGES FOR ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT IN THE GLOBALIZED WORLD

Globalization

Globalization is a set of economic processes in which production, marketing and investment are integrated across the borders of nations. The liberalization and opening up of markets to the global economy is leading to the emergence of a single market for goods, capital, technology, services, and information and to some extent labour.

Globalization is also a socio-political process because of its impact on culture, governance and domestic policy. The process of globalization is a convergence, though at differing speeds, of many institutional legal, economic, social and cultural practices and processes across the borders of nations. Globalization as an idea is how we looking at the world and reducing cultural diversity in terms of perceptions and products. The logic of globalization is the expansion of trade and investment in search of new markets and more competitive production sites. Companies can choose where they want to locate and people where they want to work and live, in a global market. The current tendency of Multinational Companies (MNCs) or Trans National Companies (TN Cs) to relocate geographically and set up production units in other areas of the world with cheaper labour, more lenient health and safety requirements, lower environmental protection standards and favourable tax laws in order to maximize profits. The rising power of MNCs is skewing the distribution of gains towards the corporations, undermining the authority of national government and civil society, eroding human rights and environmental protection and also influencing the proliferating laws governing trade and investment.

Globalization trends create challenges on a scale and scope and speed unprecedented in world history. Particularly for developing countries, the challenges are increasingly complex to negotiate because they impact across the sectors and at many levels of society. The challenge for policy makers at the different levels of government is to articulate with the global economy so as to harness the potential benefits for national development and minimize the negative effects, as the global trade system has led to increased environmental damage and violation of human rights. F or the development planners, the challenge is to address the effects of rapid expansion of corporate interests. Measures to protect ecological stability for local communities against the benefits of corporate operation, i.e., measures that promote the sustainable use of the environment.

The process of globalization and the global changes affects the development of the cities. Cities comprise a paradox. They embody the leading centers of development, but they are also a fertile soil for social exclusions and environmental problems.

Environmental challenges under globalization

Globalization generates new challenges in preparing strategies for urban development because globalization threatens to exacerbate urban environmental pollution and natural resource degradation. The strategy is to make cities livable, provide environmental services for the urban people and protect urban people against environmental hazards. The challenges due to globalization are as follows:

(i) The concept of the livable city is defined in terms of a healthy and dignified living environment. Therefore, it is important to address the sources of environmental degradation.

(ii) The environmental services for the urban people are to provide cleaner air, cleaner water and healthier cities.

(iii) Protect urban people against urban environmental hazards like global warming, ozone depletion, etc.

Urban environment

Urban environment encompasses the interaction of population, growth, city management and the built environment with the natural environment or ecological system in which city is located. Urban environment also links other parameters of the urban puzzle like health, energy, infrastructure and land use. A fundamental dimension of sustainable development is sustaining the growth and development of the city while balancing the benefits with complex ecological systems and the global environment.

Urban environmental issues

Urban environmental problems are threats to people's present or future wellbeing, resulting in human induced damage to the physical environment in or borne into urban areas. Urban environmental issues are raised by urban development initiatives and are related to environmental problems. They are as follows:

(i) Localized environmental health problems like inadequate potable water and sanitation facilities, indoor air pollution and excessive crowding.

(ii) City regional environmental problems like ambient air pollution, inadequate

and inefficient waste disposal management, pollution of water bodies and loss of green areas.

(iii) Extra urban impacts of urban activities like ecological disruption and resource depletion and emission of chemicals and green house gases.

(iv) The urban impacts of regional or global environmental burden that may arise from activities outside the city's geographical boundaries, but will affect people living in the city.

Urban environmental challenges

There are a number of emerging environmental challenges that cities will need to address. They are as follows:

(i) Providing basic environmental services in a way that most effectively protects health.

(a) Access to safe potable water, sanitation and drainage facilities.

(b) Proper management of solid waste collection and disposal.

(c) Reduction of pollution within the households by providing cleaner fuel for cooking and improved household ventilation.

(ii) Identification and implementing integrated approaches to urban environment to prevent and abate the impacts of pollution and degradation.

( a) Ambient air pollution.

(b) Surface water pollution.

(c) Ground water pollution and depletion.

(d) Land use and ecosystem degradation.

(iii) Proper dealing with accidents and environmental disasters deriving from both natural and man made efforts. Some of the worst sites of ecological disaster are found in and around cities.

(iv) Urban poverty and environmental conditions are interrelated. This poverty is exacerbated by environmental threats that account for a large share of ill health, early death and hardships to human beings.

(v) Urban environmental factors are affecting human health, particularly in the field of fertility. In some countries, sperm counts are drastically reduced.

(vi) (vi) Understanding the influence of urbanization on food system, i.e., food supply,

marketing and distribution. Due to adulterated food supply in urban areas.

(vii) Urban sprawl; the population is increasing in urban areas, leading to the decline in the amount of open space available and urban poor will take up illegal residence on the periphery of the city. These settlements become slums of the most appalling nature and adversely affect the environment.

(viii) Urban consumption and production patterns are the root cause or main culprit of environmental deterioration. Therefore, better urban environmental management is required.With this backdrop of urban environmental issues and challenges, globalization

generates new challenges in preparing strategies for urban development. The effects of globalization will profoundly affect the future development of the urban centers and cities. Therefore the following must be done:

(i) Use the forces of globalization constructively by assessing the local potential and integrating this into strategies for urban development.

(ii) Co-ordinate strategies for urban development and support partnership between public, private and NGOs.

(iii) Use regional and urban identities in adapting to global change.

(iv) Develop innovative and sustainable long-term perspectives in which cities potential strength's are linked to regional competence and culture.

(vii) Use the global trends to shape the urban environment.

(viii) (vi) Good urban governance and management is required in view of globalization.

Urban governance and management

The increased pace of urbanization and its linkages to economic globalization have reinvigorated interest in good urban governance and management and its links to economic growth. Good urban governance and management is one of the main pillars of sustainable cities. Good governance is primarily through community participation, private sector involvement and the actions of NGOs. Appropriate policy design, decision making, prompt monitoring and evaluation have all relied on networking among the various stakeholders in the urban environment field. The combined efforts of economic, social, political, cultural and ethical factors to define the fundamental of good governance, i.e., fiscal discipline, fair and transparent resource allocation, effective, and predictable regulatory system, independent and just mechanism for conflict resolution, strategic planning, fiduciary responsibility, participatory decision making, safety and security for all, open information flows and ethical behaviour. Good governance in the backdrop of the effects of globalization on urban environment involves the following:

(i) Provision for basic environmental services like sanitation, solid waste collection and disposal management.

(ii) Provision for better environmental management like preventing ecosystem degradation, ozone depletion.

(iii) Improving environmental quality by imposing emission charges on pollution.

(iv) Provision for environmental justice like access to clean air and water.

(v) Specific laws to deal with environmental deterioration.

(vi) Effective tools to protect urban poor against global market hazards.

(vii) Community involvement becomes more critical to effectively deal with environmental problems.

(viii) Capacity building initiatives to enable all levels of government and other stakeholders to implement responsive and sustainable programmes